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Politics, State, Society and the Economy in South India under Vijayanagar and Bahmanid Rule (1350–1565) ​

High-Yield Fact Sheet ​

📊 High-Yield Data & Statistical Fact Sheet
Cue WordsNotes
List core chronological markers of Vijayanagar and Bahmani political history (1350–1565).Core Chronology & Markers:
  • Period Frame: South India south of the Vindhyas dominated by Vijayanagar and Bahmanid kingdoms for more than 200 years (mid-14th century onwards); source frame **1350–1565**.
  • Bahmani Foundation: **1347** by **Alauddin Hasan** (Hasan Gangu / Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah); capital **Ahsanabad (Gulbarga)** 1347–1425, then **Muhammadabad (Bidar)**.
  • Vijayanagar Foundation: **Sangama** dynasty by brothers **Harihara I** (Vira Harihara / Hakka Raya, 1336–1356) and **Bukka Raya I** (1356–1377); capital on the **Tungbhadra** (Hampi).
  • Madurai Sultanat wiped out: by **1377**; Vijayanagar extended south to **Rameshwaram** and parts of Kerala.
  • First artillery mention: both sides, in the **1367** Mudkal–Tungbhadra war under **Bukka I**.
  • Krishna Deva Raya: **1509–1529/30** (Tuluva); Bijapur defeated **1520**; Orissa forced to restore territories up to the **Krishna**.
  • Battle of Bannihatti / Talikota / Rakshasa-Tangadi: **1565**; **Rama Raja** captured and executed; Vijayanagar looted and left in ruins.
  • Mahmud Gawan: Age of dominance **1463–1482**; executed **1482** (over 70 years old); Bahmani dissolution into five principalities.
Summarize the three theatres of Vijayanagar–Bahmani conflict and key quantitative foreign-traveller data.Conflict Zones & Quantitative Data:
  • Three Clash Areas: (1) **Tungbhadra doab / Raichur Doab** (between Krishna and Tungabhadra); (2) **Krishna–Godavari delta**; (3) **Marathwada** / Konkan access (principal port **Goa**).
  • Nicolo Conti (c. 1420): City circumference **sixty miles**; **90,000** men fit to bear arms.
  • Abdur Razzaq (Deva Raya II court): **300 ports** each equal to Calicut; territories a space of **three months journey**; troops **eleven lakhs**; **seven citadels** and same number of walls enclosing each other.
  • Deva Raya II army (Ferishta): **2,000** Muslim enlistees with jagirs; **60,000** Hindu archers; **80,000** cavalry; **2,00,000** infantry. Deva Raya I said to have kept **10,000** Muslims in his army.
  • Land-tax rates (inscription): **1/3** of *kuruvai* (winter rice); **1/4** of sesame, ragi, horsegram, etc.; **1/6** of millet and other dry-land crops.
  • Nayaks: **200** nayaks in the Vijayanagar kingdom.
  • Barbosa on Krishna Deva: **900** elephants; more than **20,000** horses; more than **100,000** horse and foot on pay; **4–5 hundred** women burnt with the king on death.
  • Mahmud Gawan madrasa (Bidar): three storeys; accommodation for **1,000** teachers and students with free clothes and food.
Name the four Vijayanagar dynasties and the five Bahmani successor states.Dynastic Frames:
  • Vijayanagar Dynasties: **Sangama** → **Saluva** → **Tuluva** → **Aravidu**.
  • Key Sangama rulers: Harihara I, Bukka I, Harihara II, Deva Raya I, Deva Raya II (*Gajabetegara*).
  • Tuluva apex: **Krishna Deva Raya**; later **Sadashiva Raya** with real power in triumvirate led by **Rama Raja**.
  • Five Bahmani successor states: **Golconda**, **Bijapur**, **Ahmadnagar**, **Berar**, **Bidar** (source also lists Bidar / Ahmednagar / Bijapur / Golconda / Berar in the Krishna Deva context as successor states of the Bahmani kingdom).

Overview ​

Overview
Cue WordsNotes
What political order emerged in South India after the decline of the Delhi Sultanat (c. 1350–1565)?Two Large Territorial States South of the Vindhyas:
  • The decline of the **Delhi Sultanat** was accompanied by the rise of the **Vijayanagar** and **Bahmanid** kingdoms, which dominated India south of the **Vindhyas** for more than **200 years**. Although these kingdoms constantly fought with each other, they maintained law and order within their territories and on the whole provided stable governments which enabled the growth of **trade and commerce**.
  • Many rulers devoted themselves to the growth of **agriculture**, and built cities and capitals with magnificent buildings; many were also patrons of **art and culture**. Thus, in contrast to north India, two large territorial states emerged and functioned in south India from the middle of the **14th century** onwards.
  • A new situation arose with the break-up of the Bahmanid kingdom towards the end of the **15th century**, and the disintegration of the Vijayanagar empire later, following its defeat at the **battle of Talikota in 1565**. This was also the period when a European power, the **Portuguese**, entered the Asian scene and tried, on the basis of its naval strength, to establish domination over the seas and bordering areas and to capture the overseas trade.

1. Vijayanagara Dynastic Framework (Reference Chronology) ​

1. Vijayanagara Dynastic Framework (Reference Chronology)
Cue WordsNotes
List the Sangama dynasty rulers and regnal years given for reference.Sangama Dynasty:
  • Harihara Raya I — 1336–1356
  • Bukka Raya I — 1356–1377
  • Harihara Raya II — 1377–1404
  • Virupaksha Raya — 1404–1405
  • Bukka Raya II — 1405–1406
  • Deva Raya I — 1406–1422
  • Ramachandra Raya — 1422
  • Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya — 1422–1424
  • Deva Raya II — 1424–1446
  • Mallikarjuna Raya — 1446–1465
  • Virupaksha Raya II — 1465–1485
  • Praudha Raya — 1485
List the Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu dynasty rulers and regnal years given for reference.Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu Dynasties:
  • Saluva dynasty: **Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya** 1485–1491; **Thimma Bhupala** 1491; **Narasimha Raya II** 1491–1505.
  • Tuluva dynasty: **Tuluva Narasa Nayaka** 1491–1503; **Vira Narasimha Raya** 1503–1509; **Krishna Deva Raya** 1509–1529; **Achyuta Deva Raya** 1529–1542; **Venkata I** 1542; **Sadasiva Raya** 1542–1570.
  • Aravidu dynasty: **Aliya Rama Raya** 1542–1565; **Tirumala Deva Raya** 1565–1572; **Sriranga I** 1572–1586; **Venkata II** 1586–1614; **Sriranga II** 1614; **Rama Deva Raya** 1617–1632; **Venkata III** 1632–1642; **Sriranga III** 1642–1646.

2. Foundation of Vijayanagar: Origins, Traditions and Early Expansion ​

2. Foundation of Vijayanagar: Origins, Traditions and Early Expansion
Cue WordsNotes
Compare the traditional and revisionist accounts of Harihara and Bukka's origins and the foundation of Vijayanagar.Harihara I, Bukka I and Competing Origin Traditions:
  • The **Sangama dynasty** of the Vijayanagara Empire was founded by the brothers **Harihara I** (also called **Vira Harihara** or **Hakka Raya**) and **Bukka Raya I**. The role of Harihar and Bukka in the foundation of the kingdom is generally accepted; the early origins of the family are not clear.
  • Traditional account: They belonged to a family of **five brothers**, had been feudatories of the **Kakatiyas of Warangal**, and later joined the service of the ruler of **Kampili** in modern Karnataka, gradually rising to the position of ministers. When Kampili was over-run and conquered by **Muhammad bin Tughlaq** for giving refuge to a Muslim rebel, the two brothers were captured, sent to Delhi as prisoners, and **converted to Islam**. Soon a rebellion broke out at Kampili against Turkish rule; the brothers were sent to suppress it, but they forsook their new faith and joined the rebellion.
  • Revisionist rejection: Many reject this traditional account. According to them, there is little evidence of the brothers serving at Warangal, nor of their subsequent capture and conversion. Harihar and Bukka belonged to the group of **75 nayaks of Karnataka** who had rebelled against Turkish rule, and they belonged to a strong **Shaivite** family. They deny that the family had any earlier links with Andhra.
  • In building their system of administration, the Vijayanagar rulers not only used the **Tamil traditions of Chola rule**, but also **Telugu and Kannada traditions** of the **Kakatiyas** and the **Hoysalas**. Thus, they were not mere provincial leaders, but represented the **entire south**.
Describe the post-Tughlaq political map of south India and the early expansion of Harihara and Bukka.Post-Tughlaq Principalities and Early Expansion:
  • There was a complicated situation in south India following the collapse of **Tughlaq** rule. Some of the old surviving kingdoms, such as the **Hoysalas of Mysore**, lingered on and a number of new principalities arose. Of these the most important were the **Sultans of Madurai**, the **Valema rulers of Warangal**, and the **Reddis of Telingana**. Later, the **Bahmani kingdom** rose to the north of the Vijayanagar kingdom.
  • These principalities constantly fought against each other, or allied themselves according to need. In the struggle against the Sultan of Madurai, the Hoysala ruler **Ballal III** was defeated and executed. Taking advantage of this situation, Harihar and his brothers launched upon a campaign of expansion, and soon the whole of the Hoysala kingdom passed into their hands.
  • This was followed by a protracted struggle against the **Sultanat of Madurai**. The Madurai Sultanat was wiped out by **1377**. Vijayanagar rule now extended in the south up to **Rameshwaram**, and included parts of **Kerala** which had been parts of the Madurai sultanat.
  • Earlier, Harihar had established a new capital, **Vijayanagar**, on the river **Tungbhadra**. According to tradition, he did so on the advice of the sage **Vidyaranya**. According to another tradition, the city was built by **Bukka**, who succeeded his brother in around **1356**, and ruled till **1377**.
  • Vijayanagar had to meet the rising power of the Bahmani Sultans in the north who, from time to time, received the support of the **Valema rulers of Warangal** and the **Raya of Telingana**, who were afraid of the rising power of Vijayanagar and looked upon the Bahmani ruler as a kind of balancing factor.

3. Foundation of the Bahmani Kingdom ​

3. Foundation of the Bahmani Kingdom
Cue WordsNotes
Explain the foundation of the Bahmani kingdom, the Hasan Gangu legend, and the origin of the name Bahmani.Alauddin Hasan, Hasan Gangu Legend and Bahman Shah:
  • The Bahmani kingdom was founded in **1347** by an Afghan noble, **Alauddin Hasan**, whose family had risen in the services of **Alauddin Khalji**.
  • According to a popular legend, mentioned by **Ferishta** who wrote in the **17th century**, Hasan had risen in the service of a brahman, **Gangu**, and was therefore known as **Hasan Gangu**.
  • After his elevation to the throne, Alauddin Hasan, in order to raise the status of his family, tried to trace his descent from the Iranian heroes **Isfandar** and **Bahman**, and added the words **“Bahman Shah”** to his name. It was from this title that the kingdom was called the **Bahmani kingdom**.
  • The Bahmani capital was **Ahsanabad (Gulbarga)** between **1347 and 1425**, when it was moved to **Muhammadabad (Bidar)**. The empire was founded by **Ala-ud-Din Hassan Bahman Shah**, who had revolted against the Delhi Sultanate of **Muhammad bin Tughlaq**.

4. Three Theatres of Conflict: Tungbhadra Doab, Krishna–Godavari Delta, Marathwada–Konkan ​

4. Three Theatres of Conflict: Tungbhadra Doab, Krishna–Godavari Delta, Marathwada–Konkan
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Analyse why the interests of Vijayanagar and the Bahmani sultans clashed in three distinct geographical areas.Three Separate and Distinct Areas of Clash:
  • The interests of the Vijayanagar rulers and the Bahmani sultans clashed in three separate and distinct areas: **(1) Tungbhadra doab (Raichur Doab)**; **(2) Krishna–Godavari delta**; **(3) Marathwada country**.
  • Tungbhadra doab / Raichur Doab: The region between the rivers **Krishna** and **Tungbhadra** (triangular region of land in the southern Indian states of **Andhra Pradesh** and **Karnataka** lying between the Krishna River and its tributary, the Tungabhadra River). On account of its wealth and economic resources, it had been the bone of contention between the **Western Chalukyas** and the **Cholas** in the earlier period, and between the **Yadavas** and the **Hoysalas** later on.
  • Krishna–Godavari basin: Very fertile and, on account of its numerous ports, controlled the foreign trade of the region. The struggle for its mastery was often linked with the struggle for the Tungbhadra doab. Thus, the rulers of the area allied themselves sometimes to the Bahmani kingdom, or sometimes sided with Vijayanagar to save themselves.
  • Maratha country / Konkan: The main contention was for the control of the **Konkan** and the areas which gave access to it. The Konkan was a narrow strip of land between the **Western Ghats** and the sea. Its principal port **Goa** was thus of great importance to the southern states.
  • [DIAGRAM NEEDED HERE: Map showing Konkan area highlighted in red, and the three conflict zones — Tungbhadra/Raichur Doab, Krishna–Godavari delta, and Marathwada–Konkan access including Goa]

5. Nature of Vijayanagar–Bahmani Military Conflict and the Religious Dimension ​

5. Nature of Vijayanagar–Bahmani Military Conflict and the Religious Dimension
Cue WordsNotes
Evaluate whether Vijayanagar–Bahmani warfare was primarily religious, and what practical alliances cut across communal lines.Constant Warfare, Military Emphasis and Cross-Communal Alliances:
  • Military conflict between the Vijayanagar and the Bahmani kingdoms was a constant feature almost throughout the existence of these two kingdoms. This had several effects: it emphasised the **military aspect** of both kingdoms; also, the conflict between the two was often portrayed in **religious terms**.
  • Although claiming to be defender of Hindu interests, Vijayanagar rulers did not hesitate from employing a contingent of **Muslim horsemen**, armed with bows — as their early struggle was against the **Hoysala rulers who were Hindus**.
  • Later, the **Gajpati rulers of Orissa** invaded and occupied parts of the Vijayanagar kingdom, leading to a **Vijayanagar–Bahmani alliance** against them. The rulers of **Warangal** also allied themselves for a long time with the Bahmani rulers against Vijayanagar.
  • The **religious dimension cannot, however, be ignored altogether**. It made the conflict between Vijayanagar and the Bahmani sultans more bitter, leading to widespread devastation in the contested areas and the neighbouring territories, with considerable loss of life and property. Both sides sacked and burnt towns and villages, imprisoned and sold into slavery men, women and children, and committed other barbarities, often in the name of religion.
Trace the early Raichur/Mudkal cycle of war (1336–1367), artillery use, and the post-war treaty terms.Early Doab Warfare, Mudkal (1367), Artillery and Treaty:
  • The battle for the Tungbhadra doab had commenced as early as **1336** when the Bahmani forces had attacked and captured **Raichur**, but which was recovered by **Harihar** the following year. Warfare between the two sides continued in recurrent cycles.
  • In **1367**, **Bukka** embarked upon a war in association with the ruler of **Warangal** to recover the areas lost to the Bahmani ruler earlier. When **Bukka I** assaulted the fortress of **Mudkal** in the disputed Tungbhadra doab, he slaughtered the entire garrison, except one man.
  • When this news reached the Bahmani sultan, he was enraged and, to take revenge, he crossed the Tungbhadra — the first time a Bahmani sultan had in person entered the Vijayanagar territory. According to Persian sources, the Vijayanagar ruler was defeated, and had to retire into the jungles.
  • We hear for the first time of the use of **artillery** by both the sides in the battle. However, the Bahmani sultan could not gain a decisive victory, and the war dragged on for several months, during which a wholesale slaughter of men, women and children went on.
  • Finally, a kind of a treaty was patched up which restored the old position whereby the doab was shared by the two sides. A vague promise was also made that in future wars the two sides would not slaughter helpless, unarmed inhabitants. However, this hardly had an effect on future warfare.
Explain the Bahmani–Warangal alliance and its strategic consequences for Vijayanagar.Bahmani–Warangal Alliance and Golconda Boundary:
  • The elimination of the Sultan of Madurai in the south enabled Vijayanagar under **Harihar II (1377–1404)** to successfully embark upon a forward policy in the north-east and west. There were a series of Hindu principalities in the north-east region. The rulers of **Orissa** to its north, as well as the Bahmani sultans, were also interested in this area.
  • Although the ruler of Warangal had helped **Hasan Gangu** in his struggle against Delhi, his successor had invaded Warangal and seized the strong-hold of **Kaulas** and the hill fort of **Golconda**. Vijayanagar had been too busy in the south to intervene.
  • The Bahmani Sultan fixed **Golconda** as the boundary of his kingdom and promised that neither he nor his successor would encroach against Warangal any further. To seal this agreement, the ruler of Warangal presented to the Bahmani sultan a **throne set with valuable jewels** — it had been originally prepared as a present to **Muhammed bin Tughlaq**.
  • The alliance of the Bahmani kingdom and Warangal lasted for over **50 years** and was a major factor in the inability of Vijayanagar to overrun the Tungbhadra doab, or to stem the Bahmani offensive in the area. The battles between Vijayanagar and the Bahmanis kept the position of the two sides remaining more or less the same, with the fortune of war swinging sometimes to one side, and sometimes to the other.

6. Sangama Dynasty: Harihara II, Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II ​

6. Sangama Dynasty: Harihara II, Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II
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Detail Harihara II's northern, western and overseas campaigns (1377–1404).Harihara II (1377–1404 CE):
  • Bukka’s successor, **Harihara II**, continued Bukka’s campaign through southern India and managed to take control of coastal Andhra between **Nellore** and **Kalinga** and conquer the **Addanki** and **Srisailam** areas as well as most of the territory between the peninsula to the south of the **Krishna River**.
  • Harihara II also managed to conquer many Indian ports such as that of **Goa**, **Chaul**, and **Dabhol**. He was able to maintain his position in the face of the **Bahmani–Warangal combine**. His greatest success was in wresting **Belgaum** and **Goa** in the west from the Bahmani kingdom. He also sent an expedition to the north of **Sri Lanka**.
  • Harihara II ruled from the capital Vijayanagara, now more popularly known as **Hampi**.
Analyse Deva Raya I's wars with Firuz Shah Bahmani, political marriages, Reddi partition and irrigation works.Deva Raya I (1404–1422):
  • After a period of confusion and war of succession, Harihar II was succeeded by **Deva Raya I (1404–1422)**. Early during his reign, there was renewed fight for the Tungbhadra doab.
  • He was defeated by the Bahmani ruler, **Firuz Shah**, and had to pay **ten lakhs of huns**, pearls and elephants as an indemnity. He also agreed to marry his daughter to the Sultan, ceding to him in dowry **Bankapur** in the doab in order to obviate all future disputes. The marriage was celebrated with great pomp and show.
  • This was not the first political marriage of this type in south India. Earlier, the ruler of **Kherla in Gondwana** had married his daughter to **Firuz Shah Bahmani** in order to effect peace. However, these marriages by themselves could not bring about peace.
  • The question of the **Krishna–Godavari basin** led to a renewed conflict between Vijayanagar, the Bahmani kingdom and **Orissa**. Following a confusion in the **Reddi kingdom**, Deva Raya entered into an alliance with **Warangal** for partitioning the Reddi kingdom between them. Warangal’s defection from the side of the Bahmani kingdom changed the balance of power in the Deccan. In consequence, Deva Raya was able to inflict a shattering defeat on **Firuz Shah Bahmani**, and annexed the entire territory up to the mouth of the **Krishna river**.
  • Deva Raya I did not neglect the arts of peace. He constructed a **dam over the Tungbhadra** so that he could bring a canal into the city to relieve the shortage of water. It irrigated the neighbouring fields also, and the canal increased his revenues. He also built a dam on the river **Haridra** for irrigation purposes.
Assess Deva Raya II as warrior, army reformer, Gajapati opponent, naval power and literary patron.Deva Raya II (1425–1446) — Greatest Ruler of the Dynasty:
  • After some confusion, **Deva Raya II (1425–1446)**, who is considered the greatest ruler of the dynasty, ascended the throne at Vijayanagar. He was an able administrator, an ambitious warrior and a man of letters.
  • According to an account of visiting Persian chronicler **Abdur Razzak**, Deva Raya II’s empire extended from **Ceylon to Gulbarga**, and **Orissa to the Malabar**. In order to strengthen his army he inducted more Muslims into it.
  • According to **Ferishta**, Deva Raya II felt that the superiority of the Bahmani army was due to their sturdier horses and their large body of good archers. He therefore enlisted **2000 Muslims**, gave them **jagirs**, and commanded all his Hindu soldiers and officers to learn the art of **archery** from them. The employment of Muslims in the Vijayanagar army was not new, for **Deva Raya I** is said to have kept **10,000 Muslims** in his army.
  • Ferishta tells us that Deva Raya II assembled **60,000 Hindus well skilled in archery**, besides **80,000 cavalry**, and **2,00,000 infantry**. The collection of a large cavalry must have put a strain on the resources of the State since most of the good mounts had to be imported, and the **Arabs**, who controlled the trade, charged high prices for them.
  • With his new army, Deva Raya II crossed the Tungbhadra river in **1443** and tried to recover **Mudkal**, **Bankapur**, etc., which were south of the Krishna river and had been lost to the Bahmani sultans earlier. Three hard battles were fought, but in the end the two sides had to agree to the existing frontiers.
  • Deva Raya II fought three important battles against the **Gajapati of Odisha**: in **c.1427** against King **Bhanudeva** in the battle of **Kondavidu**; in **c.1436** against King **Kapilendra** when the latter tried to conquer **Rajamahendri**; and again in **c.1441**. An invasion by the **Reddis of Kondavidu** was also repulsed and by **c.1432**, all the petty chiefs of the region were brought under Vijayanagara control.
  • Deva Raya II had the title **Gajabetegara**, which literally means **“Hunter of elephants”**.
  • **Nuniz**, a Portuguese writer of the sixteenth century, tells us that the kings of **Quilon**, **Sri Lanka**, **Pulicat**, **Pegu**, **Tenasserim** (in Burma) and **Malaya** paid tribute to Deva Raya II. Perhaps, the rulers of these countries were in contact with Vijayanagar, and had sent presents to secure its goodwill. Sri Lanka, however, had been invaded a number of times. This could not have been attained without a **strong navy**.
  • Deva Raya II’s rule was a high point in the development of **Kannada literature**, when competition between **Vaishnava** and **Veerashaiva** writers was fierce and literary disputations between the two sects were common. To him goes the credit of authoring well-known works in the Kannada language (**Sobagina Sone** and **Amaruka**) and in the Sanskrit language (**Mahanataka Sudhanidhi**). Some of the most noted Kannada poets of the medieval period, such as **Chamarasa** and **Kumara Vyasa**, gained his patronage. The Sanskrit poet **Gunda Dimdima**, and the noted Telugu language poet **Srinatha** whom the king honored with the title **Kavisarvabhauma** (“Emperor among poets”) were in his court. It was an age of development in secular literature as well. The noted South Indian mathematician **Parameshvara**, from the **Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics**, lived in his empire.

7. Foreign Travellers’ Accounts of Vijayanagar (15th–16th Centuries) ​

7. Foreign Travellers’ Accounts of Vijayanagar (15th–16th Centuries)
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Present Nicolo Conti's account of Vijayanagar city, military strength and Telugu as 'Italian of the East'.Nicolo Conti (Venetian; visited Vijayanagar c. 1420):
  • **Niccolò de’ Conti** was a Venetian merchant and explorer, born in **Chioggia**, who traveled to India and Southeast Asia, and possibly to Southern China, during the early 15th century. He crossed the Arabian sea to **Cambay**, in Gujarat. He travelled in India to “**Pacamuria**”, “**Helly**” and **Vijayanagar**, capital of the Deccan before 1555.
  • It was in India that he coined the phrase **‘Italian of the East’** to refer to the **Telugu language**, which he found had words ending with vowels, similar to Italian. He went to “**Maliapur**” on the east coast of India (probably modern-day **Mylapore**, in Chennai), where he visited the tomb of **St. Thomas**, who in Christian tradition is recorded to have founded a Christian community there.
  • In the 1430s he sailed back to India (**Quilon**, **Kochi**, **Calicut**, **Cambay**) and then to the Middle-East (**Socotra**, **Aden**, **Berbera** in Somalia, **Jidda** in Egypt). Throughout his travels, he presented himself as a **Muslim**, for security.
  • Nicolo Conti, who visited Vijayanagar in **1420**, says of the city: **“The circumference of the city is sixty miles, its walls carried up to the mountains, and enclose the valley at their foot…. In this city there are estimated to be ninety thousand men fit to bear arms. Their king is more powerful than all the other kings in India.”**
Summarise Ferishta's career, works and comparative assessment of Bahmani versus Vijayanagar power.Ferishta (Persian Historian):
  • **Ferishta**, a Persian historian, says: **“The princes of the Bahmani maintained their superiority by valour only; for in power, wealth and extent of the country, the Rayas of Bijarnagar (Vijayanagar) greatly exceeded them.”**
  • While Ferishta was still a child his father was summoned away from his native country into **Ahmadnagar**, Hindustan, to teach Persian to the young prince **Miran Husain Nizam Shah**, with whom Firishta studied. Firishta left for **Bijapur** to enter the service of King **Ibrahim Adil II** in **1589**. Having been in military positions until then, Firishta was not immediately successful in Bijapur. Further exacerbating matters was the fact that Firishta was of a **Shia origin** and therefore did not have much chance of attaining high positions in the dominantly **Sunni** courts of the Deccan sultanates.
  • In **1593** Ibrahim Shah II ultimately implored Firishta to write a history of India with equal emphasis on the history of Deccan dynasties as no work thus far had given equal treatment to all regions of the subcontinent. The work was variously known as the **Tarikh-i Firishta** and the **Gulshan-i Ibrahim**.
  • In the introduction, a resume of the history of Hindustan prior to the times of the Muslim conquest is given, and also the victorious progress of Arabs through the East. The first **ten books** are each occupied with a history of the kings of one of the provinces; the **eleventh book** gives an account of the Muslims of **Malabar**; the **twelfth** a history of the Muslim saints of India; and the conclusion treats of the geography and climate of India. It also includes graphic descriptions of the persecution of Hindus during the reign of **Sikandar Butshikan** in Kashmir.
  • Firishta drew from **Tabaqat-i-Akbari** by **Nizamud din**, **Tarikh-i-Rashidi** by **Mirza Haider** and **Barani’s Tarikh**. Firishta’s account is the most widely quoted history of the **Adil Shahi**, but it is the only source for a fabricated story asserting the **Ottoman origin of Yusuf Adil Shah**, the founder of the Adil Shahi dynasty. On the other hand, *Tarikh-i-Farishti* is said to be independent and reliable on the topic of north Indian politics of the period, ostensibly that of Emperor **Jehangir** where Firishta’s accounts are held credible because of his affiliation with the south Indian kingdom of Bijapur.
Present Abdur Razzaq's description of Vijayanagar's ports, army, seven citadels, bazars and wealth.Abdur Razzaq (Timurid Ambassador at Deva Raya II’s Court):
  • **Abdur Razzaq**, who had travelled widely in and outside India, and was an ambassador at the court of **Deva Raya II**, says: **“This latter prince has in his dominions three hundred ports, each of which is equal to Calicut, and on terra firma his territories comprise a space of three months journey.”**
  • All travellers agree that the country was thickly populated with numerous towns and villages. Abdur Razzaq says: **“The country is for the most part well cultivated, very fertile. The troops amount in number to eleven lakhs.”**
  • Abdur Razzaq considers Vijayanagar to be one of the most splendid cities anywhere in the world which he had seen or heard of. Describing the city, he says: **“It is built in such a manner that seven citadels and the same number of walls enclose each other. The seventh fortress, which is placed in the centre of the others, occupies an area ten times larger than the market place of the city of Herat.”**
  • Starting from the palace, there were **four bazars** “which were extremely long and broad.” As was the Indian custom, people belonging to one caste or profession lived in one quarter of the town. The Muslims lived in separate quarters provided for them. In the bazars as well as the king’s palace, **“one sees numerous running streams and canals formed of chiselled stone, polished and smooth.”** Another later traveller says that the city was larger than **Rome**, one of the biggest towns in the western world at that time.
  • The kings of Vijayanagar were reputed to be very wealthy. Abdur Razzaq mentions the tradition that **“in the king’s palace are several cell-like basins filled with bullion, forming one mass.”** The hoarding of wealth by the ruler was an ancient tradition. However, such hoarded wealth remained out of circulation, and sometimes invited foreign attack.
  • Abdur Razzaq was a **Timurid chronicler and Islamic scholar**. He was for a while the ambassador of **Shah Rukh**, the Timurid dynasty ruler of Persia. In his role as ambassador he visited **Calicut** in western India in the early **1440s**. He wrote a narrative of what he saw in Calicut which is valuable as information on Calicut’s society and culture.
Present Fernao Nunes (Nuniz) on fortifications, capital expansion and the period of his stay.Fernão Nunes (Fernao Nuniz):
  • **Fernão Nunes**, also known as **Fernao Nuniz**, was a Portuguese traveller, chronicler and horse trader who spent **three years** in Vijayanagara, capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, in the time period **1535–1537 CE**. His writings have brought to light many interesting details about Vijayanagara at that time, including construction of massive fortification works, watch towers and security walls.
  • From his notes it is known that the expansion of the regal capital limits happened during the rule of King **Bukka Raya II** and **Deva Raya I**. Fernao Nunes was a horse merchant. He visited Vijayanagaram during the period of **Achutha Deva Raya**.

8. Nature of the Vijayanagar State: War State Debate and Centralisation vs Nayaks ​

8. Nature of the Vijayanagar State: War State Debate and Centralisation vs Nayaks
Cue WordsNotes
Critically examine the thesis that Vijayanagar was a 'war state' and the amaram/nayak system.Was Vijayanagar a War State?:
  • There has been a good deal of debate among scholars about the nature of the Vijayanagar state. Some considered it the nearest to a **war state**. He traces this to the view put forward by a Vijayanagar ruler that the income of the state should be divided into **four parts**: one part for various works; **two, i.e. half, for warfare**; and the remainder saved for an emergency.
  • He also lays emphasis on the **amaram system** whereby its holder, the **nayak**, who was granted a piece of territory had, in return, to maintain a number of troops, horses and elephants for the service of the ruler, and swear loyalty to him.
  • Vijayanagar was a war state only in the sense that all medieval states had to be constantly ready for war. The success of the rulers of Vijayanagar in meeting their Muslim opponents was largely based on the fact that they not only copied their mode of **cavalry warfare** but also inducted a large number of **mounted Muslim archers** in their army. The rulers of Vijayanagar also maintained a large **standing army** which, we are told, was **paid in cash**. Thus, while continuing traditional forms, the rulers of Vijayanagar also tried to adopt some new features.
Contrast the amaram/nayak system with the Turkish iqta system and assess the degree of centralisation.Loose Association of Nayaks vs Centralised State:
  • There is a difference of opinion whether the Vijayanagar state was a loose association of semi-autonomous military and territorial leaders, the **nayaks**, or was a centralised state on the model of the **Delhi sultanat**.
  • In this context it should be remembered that the **amaram cannot be equated to the Turkish iqta system**. The nayaks were not former slaves or subordinates of the ruler in whose service they rose, with the ruler having the power to transfer them at will or even to remove them. The nayaks were **hereditary territorial lords** in their own right.
  • While they promised service and loyalty to the ruler whose grant legitimized their position, they ran their own administration, and paid a part of their income to the ruler. There were **200 nayaks** in the Vijayanagar kingdom. The rulers tried to control them, but could not remove them.
  • Also, in some of the outlying areas in the south and the west, local rulers who had accepted the Vijayanagar suzerainty continued to rule. Thus, the area administered directly by the Vijayanagar rulers must have been much smaller than the size of the empire.
  • For the purpose, apart from the usual council of ministers headed by a **Pradhani** or chief, there was a secretariat in which a large number of scribes (**kayasthas**) were employed. According to **Abdur Razzak**, near the ruler’s palace was the **diwan-khana** “which is extremely large and presents the appearance of a *chihalsitun*, or a forty-pillared hall where the records are kept and the scribes seated.” However, we know little about the method of administration, or the size of the area under direct administration.

9. Was Vijayanagar a Citadel of (Hindu) Orthodoxy and Conservatism? ​

9. Was Vijayanagar a Citadel of (Hindu) Orthodoxy and Conservatism?
Cue WordsNotes
Evaluate the orthodoxy thesis against evidence of sectarian openness, Muslim employment and the 1469 Bhatkhal massacre.Orthodoxy Thesis, Brahman Role and Religious Practice:
  • The Vijayanagar state has been called **“a citadel of (Hindu) orthodoxy and conservatism”**. Thus, it is argued, the rulers spent a lot of time and attention in building and repairing **temples and maths**, and prided themselves on bearing the titles of **“protectors of the Vedas, and the Vedic path”**. They also gave great favours to the **brahmans**, who were not only given grants of revenue-free lands, but were appointed commanders of armies and forts.
  • The military assignment given to the brahmans, and their important political role was, however, motivated not by religious sentiments but by a desire to use the brahmans as a **balancing factor against the powerful Kannad nayaks**.
  • In matters of religion, the Vijayanagar rulers were not narrow. Although **Saivities** to begin with, they did not discriminate against the other sects among the Hindus. They also gave patronage to **Jainism**. The **Christian missionaries** who had settled down in south India were allowed to do missionary work, and make conversions among the Hindus. The Muslim soldiers employed in the army were given freedom for offering **namaz**, and in general there were good relations among the Hindus and the Muslims.
  • The only case of blatant intolerance that can be cited is when in **1469**, the Vijayanagar ruler, **Mallikarjuna Raya**, in a fit of anger hearing that the Muslim traders of **Bhatkhal** had sold horses to the Bahmani ruler, ordered the **extirpation of all Muslims in the city**. Many Muslims were massacred, and the survivors fled to **Goa**. This folly and crime led to retaliation from the Bahmani ruler, and the loss of **Belgaum** and the surrounding region to the Bahmani ruler.

10. Climax and Disintegration: Saluva Dynasty, Tuluva Dynasty and Krishna Deva Raya ​

10. Climax and Disintegration: Saluva Dynasty, Tuluva Dynasty and Krishna Deva Raya
Cue WordsNotes
Trace the post–Deva Raya II confusion, Saluva usurpation and Narasimha's policies.Post–Deva Raya II Confusion and Saluva Dynasty:
  • There was confusion in the Vijayanagar empire after the death of **Deva Raya II**. Civil wars broke out among various contenders to the throne. Many feudatories assumed independence in the process. The authority of the Raya shrunk to **Karnataka** and to some portions of the western **Andhra** region.
  • After some time, the throne was usurped by the king’s minister, **Saluva**. The earlier dynasty, thus, came to an end. Saluva restored internal law and order, and founded a new dynasty.
  • **Saluva Narasimha** was the first king of the dynasty ruling from **1485–1490**. Narasimha spent his reign in relatively successful campaigns to reduce his vassals throughout the kingdom to submission and in unsuccessful attempts to stop the encroachment of the king of **Orissa**. Narasimha also opened new ports on the west coast so that he could revive the **horse trade**, which had fallen into Bahmanī hands.
  • This dynasty also soon came to an end and a new dynasty (called the **Tuluva dynasty**) was founded, and **Krishna Deva Raya (1509–30)** who was the greatest figure of this dynasty.
Analyse Krishna Deva Raya's wars against Orissa, Bijapur and the Portuguese challenge (1509–1529).Krishna Deva Raya (1509–29/30) — Military Apex of Vijayanagar:
  • **Krishna Deva** had not only to re-establish internal law and order, but he had also to deal with the old rivals of Vijayanagar, viz., the successor states of the Bahmani kingdom — **Bidar Sultanate**; **Ahmednagar Sultanate**; **Bijapur Sultanate**; **Golconda Sultanate** and **Berar Sultanate** — and the state of **Orissa** which had usurped many Vijayanagar territories.
  • In addition, he had to contend with the **Portuguese** whose power was slowly growing. They were using their control over the seas to browbeat the smaller vassal states of Vijayanagar in the coastal areas in order to gain economic and political concessions. They had even offered to buy the neutrality of the Raya by promising him assistance in recovering **Goa** from Bijapur and giving him a monopoly in the supply of **horses**.
  • In the series of battles lasting **seven years**, Krishna Deva first compelled the ruler of Orissa to restore to Vijayanagar all the territories up to the river **Krishna**. Having thus strengthened himself, Krishna Deva renewed the old struggle for the control of the **Tungabhadra doab**. This led to a hostile alliance between his two main opponents, **Bijapur** and **Orissa**.
  • Krishna Deva made grand preparations for the conflict. He opened the hostilities by overrunning **Raichur** and **Mudkal**. In the battle which followed, the Bijapur ruler was completely defeated (**1520**). He was pushed across the river Krishna, barely escaping with his life. The Vijayanagar armies also reached **Belgaum** in the west, occupied and sacked **Bijapur** for a number of days and destroyed **Gulbarga** before a truce was made.
  • Thus, under Krishna Deva, Vijayanagar emerged as the **strongest military power in the south**. However, in their eagerness to renew the old feuds, the southern powers largely ignored the danger posed to them and to their commerce by the rise of the Portuguese. Unlike the **Cholas** and some of the early Vijayanagar rulers, Krishna Deva seems to have paid scant attention to the development of a **navy**.
Present Domingos Paes and Duarte Barbosa on Krishna Deva's personality, toleration, city and court.Foreign Accounts under Krishna Deva: Paes, Barbosa and Nuniz:
  • Foreign travellers like **Barbosa**, **Paes** and **Nuniz** speak of his efficient administration and the prosperity of the empire under his sway. **Domingos Paes**, a Portuguese who spent a number of years at Krishna Deva’s court, has given a glowing account of his personality. He remarks: **“He is a great ruler and a man of much justice, but subject to sudden fits of rage.”** He cherished his subjects, and his solicitude for their welfare became proverbial.
  • **Domingos Paes** (16th century) was a Portuguese traveller who visited the Vijayanagara Empire around the year **1520**. His account of the capital Vijayanagara (**Hampi**) is the most detailed of all historic descriptions of this ancient city. He visited the city during the rule of King **Krishna Deva Raya** and recorded his impressions of Vijayanagara state in his **Chronica**. The report of Paes, who visited Vijayanagara during Krishnadeva’s reign, is based primarily on careful observation, whereas **Nuniz** relied often also on hearsay and legends.
  • Paes described in detail the so-called feudal **nayankara system** of Vijayanagara’s military organisation and the annual royal **Durga festival**, and he was fascinated by the greatness of Vijayanagara’s fortified urban landscape, its markets, temples and the royal centre. Paes’s detailed description of the city of Vijayanagara is of immense help for identifying and interpreting the still impressive ruins of Vijayanagara, which once was, according to Paes, as large as **Rome** and **“the best provided city of the world.”**
  • The greatest achievement of Krishna Deva lay in the broad toleration that prevailed in his empire. **Barbosa** says: **“The king allows such freedom that every man may come and go and live according to his own creed, without suffering from annoyance, without enquiry whether he is a Christian, Jew, Moor or heathen.”** Barbosa also pays a tribute to Krishna Deva for the justice and equity prevailing in his empire.
  • **Duarte Barbosa** was a Portuguese factor at **Cannanore** and **Cochin** between **1503** and (about) **1517** and had left behind an interesting account on trade and political events of the southeast including Bengal. We have an account of what Vijayanagara was like in **A.D. 1504–14** in the narrative of Duarte Barbosa, who visited the city during that period. Speaking of the **“Kingdom of Narsinga,”** by which name the Vijayanagar territories were always known to the Portuguese, Barbosa writes: **“It is very rich, and well supplied with provisions, and is very full of cities and large townships.”**
  • He describes the large trade of the seaport of **Bhatkal** on its western coast, the exports from which consisted of **iron, spices, drugs, myrabolans**, and the imports of **horses and pearls**; but as regards the last two items he says, **“They now go to Goa, on account of the Portuguese.”** The governor of Bhatkal was a **nephew of King Krishna Deva**.
  • Barbosa on the capital: **“Forty-five leagues from these mountains there is a very large city which is called BIJANAGUER, very populous, and surrounded on one side by a very good wall, and on another by a river, and on the other by a mountain. This city is on level ground; the king of Narsinga (Vijayanagara) always resides in it. He has in this place very large and handsome palaces, with numerous courts…. There are also in this city many other palaces of great lords, who live there. And all the other houses of the place are covered with thatch, and the streets and squares are very wide. They are constantly filled with an innumerable crowd of all nations and creeds…. There is an infinite trade in this city…. In this city there are many jewels which are brought from Pegu and Celani (Ceylon/Sri Lanka), and in the country itself many diamonds are found, because there is a mine of them in the kingdom of Narsinga and another in the kingdom of Decani (Deccan). There are also many pearls and seed-pearls to be found there, which are brought from Ormuz and Cael … also silk brocades, scarlet cloth, and coral….”**
  • Barbosa continues: **“The king constantly resides in the before-mentioned palaces, and very seldom goes out of them….”** **“All the attendance on the king is done by women, who wait upon him within doors; and amongst them are all the employments of the king’s household; and all these women live and find room within these palaces, which contain apartments for all….”** **“This king has a house in which he meets with the governors and his officers in council upon the affairs of the realm…. They come in very rich litters on men’s shoulders…. Many litters and many horsemen always stand at the door of this palace, and the king keeps at all times nine hundred elephants and more than twenty thousand horses, all which elephants and horses are bought with his own money…. This king has more than a hundred thousand men, both horse and foot, to whom he gives pay….”** **“When the king dies four or five hundred women burn themselves with him…. The king of Narsinga (Vijayanagara) is frequently at war with the king of Dacani (Deccan), who has taken from him much of his land; and with another gentile king of the country of Otira (apparently Orissa), which is the country in the interior.”**
Detail Krishna Deva Raya as builder, scholar and multi-lingual literary patron.Krishna Deva Raya as Builder and Literary Patron:
  • Krishna Deva was also a great builder. He built a new town near Vijayanagar and dug an enormous tank which was also used for irrigation purposes. He was a gifted scholar of **Telugu** and **Sanskrit**. Of his many works, only one in Telugu on **polity**, and a drama in Sanskrit are available today. His reign marked a new era in Telugu literature when imitation of Sanskrit works gave place to independent works. He extended his patronage to Telugu, Kannada and Tamil poets alike. **Krishna Deva Raya’s reign is considered the golden age of Telugu literature**.
  • Krishna Deva Raya patronised the Tamil poet **Haridasa** and Tamil literature soon began to flourish as the years passed by. He patronised Kannada poets **Mallanarya**.
  • Krishna Deva Raya respected all sects of Hinduism and lavished on the **Tirumala Venkateswara Temple** numerous objects of priceless value. He also contributed in building parts of the **Srisailam** temple complex. Krishna Deva Raya was formally initiated into the **Vaishnava Sampradaya** by **Vyasatirtha**.

11. Sadashiva Raya, Rama Raja and the Battle of Talikota (1565) ​

11. Sadashiva Raya, Rama Raja and the Battle of Talikota (1565)
Cue WordsNotes
Explain Rama Raja's balance-of-power diplomacy and the coalition that destroyed Vijayanagar at Bannihatti/Talikota.Triumvirate Rule, Balance of Power and Destruction of Vijayanagar:
  • After the death of Krishna Deva, there was a struggle for succession among his relations since his sons were all minors. Ultimately, in **1543**, **Sadashiva Raya** ascended the throne and reigned till **1567**. But the real power lay in the hands of a **triumvirate** in which the leading person was **Rama Raja**.
  • Rama Raja was able to play off the various Muslim powers against one another. He entered into a commercial treaty with the **Portuguese** whereby the supply of horses to the Bijapur ruler was stopped. In a series of wars he completely defeated the Bijapur ruler and also inflicted humiliating defeats on **Golconda** and **Ahmadnagar**.
  • It seems that Rama Raja had no larger purpose than to maintain a **balance of power** favourable to Vijayanagar between these three powers. At length, they combined to inflict a crushing defeat on Vijayanagar at **Bannihatti**, near **Talikota**, in **1565**. This is called the **battle of Talikota** or the **battle of Rakshasa-Tangadi**.
  • **Rama Raja** was surrounded, taken prisoner and immediately executed. Vijayanagar was thoroughly looted and left in ruins. The battle of **Bannihatti** is generally considered to mark the end of the great age of Vijayanagar. Although the kingdom lingered on for almost a hundred years, its territories decreased continually and the Raya no longer counted in the political affairs of south India.

12. State Administration, Society and Economy in Vijayanagara ​

12. State Administration, Society and Economy in Vijayanagara
Cue WordsNotes
Outline Vijayanagar kingship ideals, council, territorial divisions and decline of village self-government.Kingship, Council and Territorial Structure:
  • The concept of kingship among the Vijayanagar rulers was high. In his book on polity, **Krishna Deva Raya** advises the king that **“with great care and according to your power you should attend to the work of protecting (the good) and punishing (the wicked) without neglecting anything that you can see or hear.”** He also enjoined upon the king to **“levy taxes from his people moderately.”**
  • In the Vijayanagar kingdom the king was advised by a **council of ministers** which consisted of the great nobles of the kingdom.
  • The kingdom was divided into **rajyas** or **mandalam** (provinces) below which were **nadu** (district), **sthala** (sub-district) and **grama** (village). However, the **Chola traditions of village self-government** were considerably weakened under Vijayanagar rule. The growth of **hereditary nayakships** tended to curb their freedom and initiative.
Describe peasantry, dress, ornaments and inscriptional land-tax rates under Vijayanagar.Peasantry, Social Life and Land-Tax Rates:
  • Historians are not agreed about the condition of the peasantry under the Vijayanagar rule, because most of the travellers had little knowledge about village life and, thus, spoke of it in very general terms. In general, it may be presumed that the economic life of the people remained more or less the same; their houses were mostly thatched with a small door; they generally went about barefooted and wore little above the waist.
  • People of the upper classes sometimes wore costly shoes and a silk turban on their heads, but did not cover themselves above the waist. All classes of people were fond of ornaments, and wore them **“in their ears, on their necks, on their arms, etc.”**
  • We have very little idea about the share of the produce the peasants were required to pay. According to an inscription, the rates of taxes were as follows:
    • **One-third** of the produce of *kuruvai* (a type of rice) during winter.
    • **One-fourth** of sesame, ragi, horsegram, etc.
    • **One-sixth** of millet and other crops cultivated on dry land.
  • Thus, the rate varied according to the type of crops, soil, method of irrigation, etc. In addition to the land-tax, there were various other taxes, such as **property tax**, tax on **sale of produce**, **profession taxes**, **military contribution** (in times of distress), **tax on marriage**, etc.
  • The sixteenth-century traveller, **Nikitin**, says: **“The land is overstocked with people, but those in the country are very miserable while the nobles are extremely affluent and delight in luxury.”**
Analyse agricultural development, temple towns, trade and urbanisation under Vijayanagar (14th–16th centuries).Agriculture, Temples, Trade and Urban Growth:
  • Trade and agriculture grew under the Vijayanagar rule. As village self-rule declined, there was the growth of a class of locally powerful people who used their position for developing agriculture by providing additional **irrigation facilities** for which an extra charge was made. Many temples, which enjoyed **rent-free villages**, also used their resources for this purpose.
  • Urban life grew under the Vijayanagar empire and trade flourished. Many of the towns grew around **temples**. The temples were very large and needed supply of food stuff and commodities for distribution of *prasadam* to the pilgrims, service of God, the priests, etc. The temples were rich and also took active part in trade, both internal and overseas.
  • Thus, despite continuous wars, there was growth of trade and urbanisation in south India between the **14th and 16th centuries**. Agriculture also developed. This was reflected in the cultural growth during the period.

13. Bahmani Dynastic Framework (Reference Chronology) ​

13. Bahmani Dynastic Framework (Reference Chronology)
Cue WordsNotes
List Bahmani sultans, personal names, regnal years and late puppet status under Amir Barid I.Bahmani Rulers (Independence from Muhammad bin Tughlaq):
  • Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah / Hasan Gangu — 1347–1358 CE
  • Muhammad Shah Bahmani I — 1358–1375 CE
  • Ala-ud-Din Mujahid Shah / Mujahid Shah Bahmani — 1375–1378 CE
  • Dawood Shah Bahmani — 1378 CE
  • Mahmood Shah Bahmani I — 1378–1397 CE
  • Ghiyath-ud-din Shah Bahmani — 1397 CE
  • Shams-ud-din Shah Bahmani — 1397 CE (Puppet King under **Lachin Khan Turk**)
  • Taj-ud-Din Feroze Shah / Feroze Khan — 1397–1422 CE
  • Ahmed Shah Wali Bahmani — 1422–1436 CE
  • Ala-ud-Din Ahmed Shah / Ala-ud-Din Ahmed Shah Bahmani — 1436–1458 CE
  • Ala-ud-Din Humayun Shah / Humayun Shah Zalim Bahmani — 1458–1461 CE
  • Nizam Shah Bahmani — 1461–1463 CE
  • Muhammad Shah Bahmani II / Muhammad Shah Lashkari / Vira Shah — 1463–1482 CE
  • Mahmood Shah Bahmani II — 1482–1518 CE
  • Ahmed Shah Bahmani II — 1518–1521 CE (Puppet King under **Amir Barid I**)
  • Ala-ud-Din Shah / Ala-ud-Din Shah Bahmani II — 1521–1522 CE (Puppet King under **Amir Barid I**)
  • Waliullah Shah Bahmani — 1522–1525 CE (Puppet King under **Amir Barid I**)
  • Kaleemullah Shah Bahmani — 1525–1527 CE (Puppet King under **Amir Barid I**)
  • Dissolution: of the Sultanate into **5 Kingdoms** namely: **Bidar Sultanate**; **Ahmednagar Sultanate**; **Golconda Sultanate** and **Berar Sultanate** (source also elsewhere names five principalities: **Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar and Bidar**).

14. Firuz Shah Bahmani (1397–1422) and Ahmad Shah I ​

14. Firuz Shah Bahmani (1397–1422) and Ahmad Shah I
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Assess Firuz Shah Bahmani as scholar-king, multi-lingual courtier, cultural magnet and Hindu-inclusive administrator.Firuz Shah Bahmani (1397–1422) — Most Remarkable Figure of the Period:
  • The most remarkable figure in the Bahmani kingdom during the period was **Firuz Shah Bahmani (1397–1422)**. He was well-acquainted with the religious sciences, that is, commentaries on the Quran, jurisprudence, etc., and was particularly fond of **logic**, and of the natural sciences such as **botany**, **geometry**, etc. He was a good **calligraphist** and a **poet** and often composed extempore verses.
  • According to **Ferishta**, he was well versed not only in **Persian, Arabic and Turkish**, but also in **Telugu, Kannada and Marathi**. He had a large number of wives in his haram from various countries and regions, including many Hindu wives, and he used to converse with each of them in their own language.
  • Firuz Shah Bahmani was determined to make the **Deccan the cultural centre of India**. The decline of the Delhi Sultanat helped him, for many learned people migrated from Delhi to the Deccan. The king also encouraged learned men from **Iran and Iraq**. He generally spent his time till midnight in the company of divines, poets, reciters of history and the most learned and witty among his courtiers. He had read the **Old and New Testaments**, and he respected the tenets of all religions. Ferishta calls him an orthodox Muslim, his only weakness being his fondness for drinking wine and listening to music.
  • The most remarkable step taken by Firuz Shah Bahmani was the induction of **Hindus in the administration on a large scale**. It is said that from his time the **Deccani brahmans** became dominant in the administration. The Decanni Hindus also provided a balance against the influx of foreigners called **afaqis** or **gharibs**. Many of the foreigners from West Asia were **Persians**, under whose influence Persian culture and also **Shia doctrines** grew in the kingdom.
  • The Bahmani rulers were tolerant in religious matters, and though most of them were **Sunnis**, they did not persecute Shiism. Nor was **jizyah** levied on the Hindus during the early phase of Bahmanid rule. We have no reference to jizyah in the subsequent period also. If collected later on, it was collected as a part of land-revenue (**kharaj**).
  • Firuz Shah Bahmani encouraged the pursuit of **astronomy** and built an **observatory near Daulatabad**. He paid much attention to the principal ports of his kingdom, **Chaul** and **Dabhol**, which attracted trading ships from the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, and poured in luxury goods from all parts of the world.
  • Firuz Bahmani started the Bahmani expansion towards **Berar** by defeating the Gond Raja **Narsingh Rai of Kherla**. Kherla was restored to Narsingh who was made an **amir** of the kingdom and given robes of state, including an embroidered cap.
  • Firuz Shah Bahmani’s marriage with a daughter of **Deva Raya I** and his subsequent battles against Vijayanagar have been mentioned. The struggle for the domination of the Krishna–Godavari basin, however, continued. In **1419**, the Bahmani kingdom received a setback, Firuz Shah Bahmani being defeated by **Deva Raya I**. This defeat weakened the position of Firuz. He was compelled to abdicate in favour of his brother **Ahmad Shah I**.
Describe Ahmad Shah I as wali, conqueror of Warangal, and shifter of capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.Ahmad Shah I (Wali):
  • He is called a saint (**wali**) on account of his association with the famous sufi saint **Gesu Daraz**. However, Ahmad Shah was also considered a saint by the Hindus, so much so that his **urs** (death anniversary) continued to be celebrated jointly till recent times.
  • Ahmad Shah continued the struggle for the domination of the eastern seaboard in south India. He could not forget that in the last two battles in which the Bahmani sultan had been defeated, the ruler of **Warangal** had sided with Vijayanagar. In order to wreck vengeance, he invaded Warangal, defeated and killed the ruler in the battle, and annexed most of its territories.
  • In order to consolidate his rule over the newly acquired territories, he shifted the capital from **Gulbarga to Bidar**. After this, he turned his attention towards **Malwa**, **Gondwana** and the **Konkan**.

15. Age of Mahmud Gawan (1463–1482): Expansion, Afaqi–Deccani Struggle and Northern Frontiers ​

15. Age of Mahmud Gawan (1463–1482): Expansion, Afaqi–Deccani Struggle and Northern Frontiers
Cue WordsNotes
Trace Mahmud Gawan's rise from 1456 to wakil-i-sultanat and his eastern and western military expansion.Rise of Mahmud Gawan and Military Expansion:
  • The second half of the fifteenth century saw the gradual rise of the Bahmani kingdom as the leading power in the south. This had been presaged by the conquest of Warangal by **Ahmad Shah**, which showed that the balance of power was shifting in favour of the Bahmanids.
  • Following the death of **Deva Raya II**, there was confusion in Vijayanagar which provided an opportunity to the **Gajpati rulers of Orissa** to expand their power and influence in the area. The Bahmanids used the opportunity to consolidate their position in the south, and to expand northwards towards **Berar** and **Khandesh**, and westwards towards the **Konkan**. This brought them into conflict with the rulers of **Malwa** and **Gujarat**.
  • During this period, struggle between the **Afaqis (Newcomers)** and the **Deccanis (Oldcomers)** created confusion in the internal affairs of the Bahmani kingdom till **Mahmud Gawan** rose to power and prominence.
  • An Iranian by birth, he comes first to our notice in **1456** when he was put at the head of a force to deal with a pretender who had risen against the reigning sultan. Mahmud Gawan was introduced to the ruler, and steadily gained in influence so that in **1461**, when the sultan died and a minor succeeded him, Mahmud Gawan was appointed a member of the **council of regency**, set up to look after the affairs of the state.
  • Following a series of invasions by the ruler of Malwa, the council of regency was dissolved, and in **1463** a new prince was seated on the throne who appointed Mahmud Gawan as **wakil-i-sultanat** (prime minister), with the title of **Khwaja-i-Jahan** and **Malik-ut-Tajjar**. Although Mahmud Gawan had never been a trader (*tujjar*), this title had been awarded by some preceding rulers upon leading nobles.
  • Mahmud Gawan dominated the affairs of the state for **twenty years**. During the period, Mahmud Gawan tried to extend the frontiers of the kingdom towards the east and the west. In the east, he came into conflict with the **Gajpati ruler of Orissa**, and joined hands with **Vijayanagar** to oust him from the **Coromandel coast**. He also made further conquest at the cost of Orissa.
  • Mahmud Gawan’s major military contribution, however, was the over-running of the western coastal areas, including **Dabhol** and **Goa**. The loss of these ports was a heavy blow to Vijayanagar. Control of Goa and Dabhol led to further expansion of the overseas trade with **Iran, Iraq**, etc. Internal trade and manufactures also grew.
Explain Mahmud Gawan's northern frontier settlement with Malwa/Gujarat and the non-religious pattern of Deccan conflict.Northern Frontiers, Malwa–Gujarat Axis and Pattern of Struggle:
  • Mahmud Gawan also tried to settle the northern frontiers of the kingdom. Since the time of **Ahmad Shah I**, the kingdom of **Malwa** ruled by the **Khalji** rulers had been contending for the mastery of **Gondwana**, **Berar** and the **Konkan**. In this struggle, the Bahmani sultans had sought and secured the help of the rulers of **Gujarat**.
  • After a great deal of conflict, it had been agreed that **Kherla** in Gondwana would go to Malwa, and **Berar** to the Bahmani sultan. However, the rulers of Malwa were always on the lookout for seizing Berar. Mahmud Gawan had to wage a series of bitter battles against **Mahmud Khalji of Malwa** over Berar. He was able to prevail due to the active help given to him by the ruler of Gujarat.
  • It would thus be seen that the pattern of struggle in the south did not allow divisions along religious lines, **political and strategic considerations and control over trade and commerce** being more important causes of the conflict. Secondly, the struggle between the various states of north India and in south India did not proceed completely in isolation from each other. In the west, **Malwa** and **Gujarat** were drawn into the affairs of the Deccan, and in the east, **Orissa** was involved in a struggle with **Bengal** and also cast covetous eyes on the **Coromandel coast**.
  • The expansion of the Bahmani kingdom towards the east and the west led to a resurgence of the conflict with Vijayanagar. But by this time Vijayanagar was no match for the Bahmani kingdom. Mahmud Gawan not only annexed the **Tungabhadra doab**, but made a deep raid into the Vijayanagar territories, reaching as far south as **Kanchi**.

16. Character, Internal Reforms, Army and Architecture of Mahmud Gawan ​

16. Character, Internal Reforms, Army and Architecture of Mahmud Gawan
Cue WordsNotes
List the five character traits of Mahmud Gawan emphasised in the source.Character of Mahmud Gawan:
  • In an age in which drinking and pursuits of pleasure were ordinary things, he was above all these things. He was a man of high character and never indulged in low pursuits.
  • He was a great lover of **justice** and treated both the poor and the rich alike. Though he himself belonged to the **Irani** group, he showed no leniency to them.
  • The most important quality in his character was his **devotion to his masters**.
  • He was a great lover of the poor and was always ready to help them. He used to distribute a major portion of his income among the poor and the destitute.
  • He led a very **simple life** and hated pomp and show. He used to take his meals in **earthen-wares** and slept on ordinary mats.
Detail Mahmud Gawan's provincial, revenue, military, agricultural and financial reforms.Internal Reforms — Nobility Control, Revenue and Army:
  • Mahmud Gawan carried out a number of internal reforms. Some of these were aimed at limiting the power of the nobles.
  • The old provinces (**tarafs**) were further sub-divided from **four into eight**, and the governor of each fort was to be appointed **directly by the sultan**. The salaries and obligations of each noble were fixed. The salary could be paid in cash or by assigning a **jagir**. Those who were paid by means of jagir were allowed expenses for the collection of land revenue.
  • In every province, a tract of land (**khalisa**) was set apart for the expenses of the Sultan. Efforts were made to **measure the land** and to fix the amount to be paid by each cultivator to the state.
  • Mahmud Gawan organized the army on systematic lines. Their salaries were raised and every other facility was provided to them but at the same time strict discipline was enforced on them. The military power that had been assigned to the **Jagirdars** by the former rulers was taken away from them and **centralised in the hands of the Sultan**. These measures led to efficiency and infused a new life in the army.
  • He successfully curbed the mutual jealousies of the nobles who were divided into hostile groups of the **Dakhani** and the **Iranian Amirs**. Though he himself was a Persian, he did not favour the members of his own group. He did not patronize any group, and kept both of them under his strict control.
  • With a view to improving agriculture, various **irrigation projects** were undertaken and several **vexatious taxes** which hung heavy on the peasants were abolished.
  • He organized the finances on sound lines because he fully knew their importance for the better running of the state. He saved a good deal of money by effecting economy and stopping useless expenditure. In this way he set right the whole state machinery and established complete peace and order in the country.
Describe the Bidar madrasa of Mahmud Gawan as architecture and centre of learning.Art, Architecture and the Bidar Madrasa:
  • Mahmud Gawan was a great patron of the arts. He built a magnificent **madrasa** or college in the capital, **Bidar**. This fine building, which was decorated with **coloured tiles**, was **three storeys high**, and had accommodation for **one thousand teachers and students** who were given clothes and food free. Some of the most famous scholars of the time belonging to **Iran and Iraq** came to the madrasa at the instance of Mahmud Gawan.
  • [DIAGRAM NEEDED HERE: Image/view of the Madrasa of Mahmud Gawan in Bidar showing three-storey structure and coloured-tile decoration]

17. Downfall of Mahmud Gawan, Dissolution into Five Kingdoms and Cultural Bridge Role ​

17. Downfall of Mahmud Gawan, Dissolution into Five Kingdoms and Cultural Bridge Role
Cue WordsNotes
Explain the Deccani–Afaqi factional conflict that led to Gawan's execution in 1482 and the five successor states.Execution of Mahmud Gawan and Fragmentation of the Bahmani Kingdom:
  • One of the most difficult problems which faced the Bahmani kingdom was strife among the nobles. The nobles were divided into old-comers and new-comers or **Deccanis** and **Afaqis**. As a newcomer, Mahmud Gawan was hard put to win the confidence of the Deccanis. Though he adopted a broad policy of conciliation, the party strife could not be stopped.
  • His opponents managed to poison the ears of the young Sultan who had him executed in **1482**. Mahmud Gawan was **over 70 years old** at the time.
  • The party strife now became even more intense. The various governors became independent. Soon, the Bahmani kingdom was divided into **five principalities**: **Golconda**, **Bijapur**, **Ahmadnagar**, **Berar** and **Bidar**. Of these, the kingdoms of **Ahmadnagar**, **Bijapur** and **Golconda** played a leading role in the Deccan politics till their absorption in the **Mughal empire** during the seventeenth century.
Assess the Bahmani kingdom as a cultural bridge between north and south and with West Asia.Cultural Bridge Function:
  • The Bahmani kingdom acted as a **cultural bridge between the north and the south**. It also established close relations with some of the leading countries of **West Asia**, including **Iran** and **Turkey**.
  • The culture which developed as a result had its own specific features which were distinct from north India. These cultural traditions were continued by the successor states and also influenced the development of **Mughal culture** during the period.

Mains Strategy: Analytical Lenses ​

Mains Strategy: Analytical Lenses
Cue WordsNotes
Which analytical frames should structure Mains answers on Vijayanagar–Bahmani history?Core Analytical Lenses Drawn from the Source:
  • Geography over theology: Frame the three conflict zones (Raichur Doab, Krishna–Godavari, Konkan/Goa) as drivers of continuous war, while treating the religious dimension as intensifying but not exclusive.
  • Institutional comparison: Contrast *amaram*/hereditary **nayaks** with Turkish *iqta*; use cash-paid standing army and Muslim mounted archers as evidence of adaptive statecraft rather than pure tradition.
  • Balance-of-power politics: Use Rama Raja’s play-off of Bijapur–Golconda–Ahmadnagar and the 1565 coalition as the terminal logic of Deccan multipolarity.
  • Factionalism and reform: Pair Mahmud Gawan’s centralising reforms (*tarafs* 4→8, *khalisa*, land measurement, jagirdar demilitarisation) with the Afaqi–Deccani cleavage that destroyed him.
  • Foreign travellers as evidence: Deploy Conti, Abdur Razzaq, Paes, Barbosa, Nuniz and Ferishta as differentiated sources (observation vs hearsay; Deccan vs north reliability).

Mains Perspective & UPSC Relevance ​

Mains Perspective & UPSC Relevance
Cue WordsNotes
Map the topic to UPSC GS-I syllabus language and high-probability Mains angles.UPSC Syllabus Alignment (GS Paper I — Indian Heritage and Culture; History of India):
  • Post-Sultanat South Indian state formation: Emergence of two large territorial states south of the Vindhyas after Delhi Sultanat decline; stable governance enabling trade, agriculture, cities and cultural patronage despite inter-state war.
  • Vijayanagar polity and society: Kingship ideals (Krishna Deva Raya’s polity advice); *rajya/mandalam–nadu–sthala–grama*; decline of Chola-style village self-government under hereditary nayakships; *amaram* vs *iqta*; war-state debate; orthodoxy vs multi-sectarian and multi-faith practice.
  • Economy and urbanism: Variable land-tax shares; temple-centred towns and overseas trade; irrigation by state, local elites and temples; Portuguese disruption of horse and pearl trade (Bhatkal → Goa).
  • Bahmani administration and culture: Firuz Shah’s multi-lingual court and Hindu induction; Afaqi–Deccani conflict; Mahmud Gawan’s provincial, revenue and military reforms; Bidar madrasa; cultural bridge to West Asia and later Mughal culture.
  • Climax and collapse: Krishna Deva Raya’s military apex and literary golden age; Sadashiva–Rama Raja triumvirate; Battle of Bannihatti/Talikota/Rakshasa-Tangadi (1565); five Deccan successor sultanates.
List answer-ready comparative and evaluative questions supported entirely by the source.High-Yield Evaluative Questions Supported by Source Content:
  • Was the Vijayanagar–Bahmani conflict religious or geopolitical? Discuss with reference to Muslim employment in Vijayanagar armies, Warangal–Bahmani alliance, Gajpati wars, and the 1469 Bhatkhal massacre.
  • Critically examine the nature of the Vijayanagar state as a ‘war state’ and as a loose association of hereditary nayaks versus a Delhi-Sultanat-type centralised polity.
  • Assess the contribution of foreign travellers (Conti, Abdur Razzaq, Paes, Barbosa, Nuniz, Ferishta) to the reconstruction of Vijayanagar’s political economy and urban life.
  • “Mahmud Gawan’s reforms strengthened the Bahmani state even as factionalism destroyed it.” Discuss.
  • Evaluate Krishna Deva Raya’s reign as the climax of Vijayanagar power, culture and multi-sectarian toleration, and explain why Portuguese naval power remained under-addressed.
  • Analyse the Battle of Talikota (1565) as the end of the great age of Vijayanagar and as a product of failed balance-of-power diplomacy under Rama Raja.

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