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Climate Change ​

📊 High-Yield Data & Statistical Fact Sheet
  • Global & Indian Emission Profiles (BUR-4):
    • Top Emitters (CO2): China (26%) > USA (14.75%) > EU (9.33%) > India (6.43%).
    • Sector Share (India): Energy (75.66%) > Agriculture (13.72%) > Industry/IPPU (8.06%) > Waste (2.56%).
    • Gas Share (India): $CO_2$ (80.53%) > Methane (13.32%) > Nitrous Oxide ($N_2O$) (5.13%).
  • India's Renewable Energy & Panchamrit Targets:
    • RE Milestones (Sept 2025): 51% non-fossil installed capacity achieved (5 years ahead of 2030 NDC target). Total installed non-fossil capacity stands at 256.09 GW. India ranks 4th in total installed renewable capacity, 5th in solar power capacity, and 4th in wind power capacity.
    • Panchamrit 2030 Goals: 500 GW non-fossil capacity; 50% electricity from renewables; 1 Billion Tonnes absolute carbon reduction; 45% reduction in GDP emission intensity (base 2005); Net Zero by 2070. Actual GDP emission intensity has already reduced by 36% from 2005 levels.
    • Historical Emissions: India's cumulative historical GHG contribution remains $< 4%$.
    • Biodiesel Feedstock: Up to 94% of India's domestic biodiesel is manufactured using imported palm stearin oil.
  • Global Sustainability Indices:
    • SDG Index 2025: India ranks 99th (first time in top 100) with a score of 67/100.
    • Planetary Boundaries: 7 of 9 boundaries transgressed; Ocean Acidification crossed its safe limit for the first time in 2025.

1. GREENHOUSE GASES & GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIALS ​

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) absorb and emit infrared radiation, trapping heat in the Earth's atmosphere:

  • Water Vapour: The largest greenhouse gas by volume and weight, responsible for ~50% of the Earth's natural greenhouse effect. Its atmospheric concentration is driven by temperature feedbacks rather than direct anthropogenic emissions.
  • Carbon Dioxide (CO2): The baseline reference gas (Global Warming Potential, $\text{GWP} = 1$). It persists in the atmosphere for 50–200 years.
  • Methane (CH4): GWP of 21 (over 100 years; 80x more potent over 20 years). Sourced from wetlands, rice cultivation, and enteric fermentation in livestock. Persists for 10–12 years. India is the 3rd largest emitter of methane globally.
  • Nitrous Oxide (N2O): GWP of 310. Persists for ~120 years. Sourced from nitrogenous fertilizers and industrial chemical manufacturing (e.g., adipic acid for nylon). It acts as both a GHG and a stratospheric ozone depleting substance.
  • Fluorinated Gases (F-Gases): Includes HFCs, PFCs, and Sulphur Hexafluoride ($SF_6$). Highly potent, with $SF_6$ having a GWP of 23,900 and persisting for thousands of years.
  • Carbon Colors:
    • Black Carbon (Soot): Pure carbon particles from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and biomass. A Short-Lived Climate Pollutant (SLCP) that absorbs sunlight, reduces snow albedo, and accelerates glacial melt.
    • Brown Carbon: Light-absorbing organic carbon compounds originating from biomass burning; contributes to regional smog.
    • Blue Carbon: Atmospheric carbon captured and sequestered by coastal marine ecosystems (mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrasses), which are up to 10x more efficient at carbon storage than terrestrial forests.

2. STRATOSPHERIC OZONE LAYER DEPLETION ​

The stratospheric ozone layer ($15\text{--}35\text{ km}$ altitude) absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV-B and UV-C) radiation. Its thickness is measured in Dobson Units (DU):

  • Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS): Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Halons, Carbon Tetrachloride, HCFCs, and Methyl Chloroform. HFCs have zero Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP), making them safe for the ozone layer. However, they are potent greenhouse gases, which is why they are regulated under the Montreal Protocol via the Kigali Amendment.
  • Depletion Mechanism (Antarctic Ozone Hole):
    • During the dark polar winter, the polar vortex isolates the Antarctic atmosphere, causing temperatures to drop below $-78^{\circ}\text{C}$.
    • This extreme cold forms Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs), which provide catalytic surfaces that convert inactive chlorine reservoirs ($HCl$ and $ClONO_2$) into active chlorine gas ($Cl_2$).
    • When sunlight returns in polar spring (September–October), UV radiation splits $Cl_2$ into free chlorine radicals, which rapidly destroy ozone molecules: $$Cl + O_3 \longrightarrow ClO + O_2$$ $$ClO + O \longrightarrow Cl + O_2$$
  • Montreal Protocol & Kigali Amendment:
    • Montreal Protocol (1987): A legally binding global treaty that successfully phased out CFCs and other ODS. India completely phased out the ozone-depleting solvent HCFC-141b in 2019.
    • Kigali Amendment (2016): Mandated the phase-down of Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) to prevent up to $0.5^{\circ}\text{C}$ of warming by 2100.

3. CARBON FINANCE, TRADING & REGULATORY MARKETS ​

  • Carbon Credits & Kyoto Protocol (1997): A tradeable permit representing the right to emit 1 tonne of $CO_2$ equivalent. The Multi Commodity Exchange (MCX) in India was the first in Asia to support carbon credit trading.
  • Paris Agreement Article 6 (2025 Implementation):
    • India's Nodal Body: Established the National Designated Authority (NDA), chaired by the Secretary of MoEFCC, to regulate Article 6 carbon markets.
    • Article 6.2: Bilateral, decentralized transfer of Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcomes (ITMOs) between countries.
    • Article 6.4: A centralized global carbon market administered by the UN (succeeding the Kyoto Clean Development Mechanism - CDM). Restricts legacy credits to those registered post-2013.
    • Article 6.8: Non-market-based cooperative approaches (e.g., technology transfers).
  • Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM): A carbon tariff imposed by the EU on energy-intensive imports (steel, cement, aluminum) from countries with less stringent carbon pricing.
  • Green Credit Rules, 2023/2025: An India-led initiative administered by the ICFRE (Dehradun). It rewards voluntary environmental actions (like afforestation and water conservation) with tradeable Green Credits (e.g., 1 credit per tree maintained for 5 years).
  • Greenhouse Gases Emission Intensity (GEI) Rules, 2025: Mandates legally binding emission intensity reductions for 400+ large industrial units (aluminum, cement, pulp, paper), administered by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE).

4. INDIA'S CLIMATE ACTION PLAN & GLOBAL INITIATIVES ​

  • National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC - 2008): Consists of 8 National Missions:
    1. National Solar Mission
    2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) (includes the Perform, Achieve, Trade - PAT scheme)
    3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
    4. National Water Mission
    5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
    6. National Mission for a Green India (GIM)
    7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
    8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC)
  • Carbon Capture, Utilisation & Storage (CCUS) 2025 Roadmap: Launched by the Department of Science & Technology (DST) to enable net-zero pathways through direct industrial utilization (enhanced oil recovery, food processing) and converting $CO_2$ into urea, methanol, or mineral carbonates.
  • International Solar Alliance (ISA): Jointly launched by India and France at COP-21 (Paris). Headquartered in Gurugram, India.
    • "Towards 1000" Strategy: Aims to mobilize $1,000 Billion in solar investments by 2030.
    • OSOWOG (One Sun One World One Grid): A global green grid initiative to connect solar energy supply across borders.
  • Glacier Preservation (UN Year 2025): 2025 was designated as the International Year of Glaciers' Preservation, with March 21 declared as World Day for Glaciers. India established its first High-Altitude Climate Research Station, Nathatop (J&K), affiliated with the WMO.
  • Just Energy Transition Partnership (JET-P): A funding mechanism where G7 nations finance coal-dependent developing countries to transition to clean energy. India is not a signatory due to concerns over domestic coal restrictions.

5. RENEWABLE ENERGY SCHEMES & IMPLEMENTATION ​

  • PM-KUSUM (Farmer Energy Security): Administered by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).
    • Component A: Install 10,000 MW of decentralized, grid-connected solar power plants on barren lands.
    • Component B: Install 20 Lakh standalone solar agriculture pumps.
    • Component C: Solarize 15 Lakh grid-connected agriculture pumps.
  • PM-Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana (2025): A central sector scheme with a budget of ₹75,021 Crore. Aims to install rooftop solar systems in 1 crore households, providing up to 300 units of free electricity per month. Subsidy is capped at ₹78,000, and REC Limited is the nodal implementation agency.
  • National Green Hydrogen Mission: Targets a production capacity of 5 MMT per annum by 2030.
    • SIGHT Scheme: Financial incentives for local manufacturing of electrolysers and green hydrogen.
    • Definition: Green hydrogen must have well-to-gate greenhouse gas emissions $< 2\text{ kg }CO_2\text{ equivalent per kg }H_2$.
  • Offshore Wind Energy VGF: Government approved ₹8,247 Crore in Viability Gap Funding for 1 GW of offshore wind projects off the coasts of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
  • Ethanol Blending Programme (EBP): Targets 20% ethanol blending in petrol (E20) by 2025-26 (advanced from 2030).

6. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT FINANCE & DECLARATIONS ​

  • Sevilla Commitment (FFD4 Financing, 2025): Address a annual financing gap for SDGs in developing nations using:
    • Debt-for-Development Swaps: Reducing external debt in exchange for local spending on sustainable development goals.
    • Debt Pause Clauses: Suspending sovereign debt payments during humanitarian or climate crises.
    • Global Solidarity Levies: International taxes on premium air travel and private jets to fund climate mitigation.
  • Global Declaration of River Dolphins (2023): Signed in Bogotá, Colombia by 11 countries (including India) to halt the decline of river dolphins in Asia and South America.
  • Belem Declaration (2023): Commitments by Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization (ACTO) members to protect the Amazon basin and include Indigenous Peoples in climate decision-making.

QUICK REVISION BOX ​

  • Water Vapour Feedbacks: Largest contributor to the natural greenhouse effect.
  • Ozone Hole Peak: Occurs during polar spring (September–October).
  • HFC Status: Potent greenhouse gas, but does not deplete stratospheric ozone.
  • N2O GWP: 310 (agricultural fertilizers and adipic acid production).
  • Green Credit Program Nodal Body: ICFRE, Dehradun.
  • Panchamrit Net Zero Target: 2070 (2030 for emission intensity reduction of 45%).
  • First Dark Sky Reserve: Hanle, Ladakh.
  • JET-P Signatory Status: India is not a signatory to the G7-led partnership.
  • E20 Target Year: Advanced to 2025-26 (20% ethanol blending in petrol).
  • Nodal Agency for PM-Surya Ghar: REC Limited.

*Notes updated up to March 2026. Sources: UNFCCC registry, BEE notifications, MNRE annual updates.

🎯 UPSC Prelims 2026 Questions & Explanations ​

Which is the first Plan Vivo certified REDD+ project in India? - Question 30: Which one of the following is the first Plan Vivo certified Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) project in India?
(a) Uttarakhand REDD+ project
(b) ICFRE-ICIMOD Transboundary REDD+ project in North-Eastern Himalayas
(c) Khasi Hills Community REDD+ project
(d) Sikkim Mamley Kamrang Community REDD+ project

Correct Answer: (C)

Key Concepts & Explanation:
The Khasi Hills Community REDD+ Project in Meghalaya is the first REDD+ project in India to receive certification under the Plan Vivo Standard (a framework designed for community-based ecosystem service initiatives). It involves indigenous communities in forest conservation, restoration, and sustainable livelihood activities. REDD+ is a framework developed under the UNFCCC to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation while promoting sustainable forest management and conservation.

Year Asked: Prelims 2026
Consider the following statements with reference to India's Fourth Biennial... - Question 31: Consider the following statements with reference to India's Fourth Biennial Update Report (BUR-4) to the UNFCCC:
1. The energy sector is the largest contributor to India's total greenhouse gas emissions, followed by agriculture.
2. India's GDP emission intensity has reduced by 36% from 2005 levels.
3. The waste sector contributes more to greenhouse gas emissions than industrial processes and product use.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Correct Answer: (B)

Key Concepts & Explanation:
Statement 1 is correct: As per the Fourth Biennial Update Report (BUR-4), the energy sector remains the largest contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions at **75.66%**, followed by the agriculture sector at **13.72%**.
Statement 2 is correct: India's emission intensity of GDP has reduced by **36%** between 2005 and 2020, demonstrating progress in decoupling economic growth from greenhouse gas emissions.
Statement 3 is incorrect: The Industrial Process and Product Use (IPPU) sector accounts for **8.06%** of emissions, whereas the waste sector accounts for only **2.56%**. Therefore, the waste sector contributes less than the industrial processes sector.

Year Asked: Prelims 2026
Which strategies/aims represent the Rainfed Area Development (RAD)... - Question 38: Which of the following is/are the core strategies/aims of the Rainfed Area Development (RAD) component implemented under the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)?
1. Encouraging monoculture in rainfed areas.
2. Increasing rice cultivation in irrigated regions.
3. Enhancing productivity and minimising climatic risks through Integrated Farming Systems (IFS).
Select the answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 3 only

Correct Answer: (D)

Key Concepts & Explanation:
Statement 1 is incorrect: The Rainfed Area Development (RAD) component under NMSA promotes diversified, integrated farming systems rather than monoculture, to build resilience against climate variability.
Statement 2 is incorrect: RAD specifically targets rainfed agricultural areas to improve livelihoods and sustainability, not irrigated regions.
Statement 3 is correct: The core focus of RAD is to adopt an area-based approach that introduces zone-specific Integrated Farming System (IFS) models (developed by ICAR) to enhance productivity and minimize climatic risks for small and marginal farmers.

Year Asked: Prelims 2026
Consider the following statements with regard to Green Hydrogen: 1. It... - Question 70: Which of the following statements with regard to Green Hydrogen is/are correct?
1. It is decarbonized hydrogen obtained from natural gas reforming combined with carbon capture and storage (CCS).
2. It is produced using electrolysis of water with electricity generated by renewable energy.
3. The National Green Hydrogen Mission of India aims for the abatement of nearly 50 MMT of annual greenhouse gas emissions by 2030.
Select the answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Correct Answer: (B)

Key Concepts & Explanation:
Statement 1 is incorrect: Decarbonized hydrogen obtained from natural gas reforming combined with carbon capture and storage (CCS) is classified as **Blue Hydrogen** (not Green Hydrogen).
Statement 2 is correct: **Green Hydrogen** is produced through the electrolysis of water, using electricity generated from zero-emission renewable energy sources (like solar or wind).
Statement 3 is correct: The National Green Hydrogen Mission aims to make India a global hub for green hydrogen production. By 2030, the mission targets a production capacity of at least 5 MMT per annum, which is expected to avert nearly 50 MMT of annual greenhouse gas emissions.

Year Asked: Prelims 2026
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