The Mahajanapadas
High-Yield Fact Sheet
📊 High-Yield Data & Statistical Fact Sheet
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| List the fixed counts, source lists, capitals, assemblies, coin standards, and route termini for the Mahajanapada age. | Identity, Lists & Source Anchors:
Capitals, Cities & Place Markers:
Assemblies, Officials & Institutional Counts:
Coinage, Weights & NBPW Anchors:
Trade-Route Termini & Sample Flows:
Heterodox Sects & Jainism Anchors (Chunk 2):
Rise of Magadha, Dynasties & Invasions Anchors (Chunk 3):
Buddhism Anchors (Chunk 3):
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Overview
Overview
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What political and material transformation defines the age of the Mahajanapadas for UPSC Mains? | Formation of Territorial States and Dual Polity: The early sixth century B.C. saw the crystallisation of sixteen powerful states or *solasa-mahajanapada*, named in contemporary Buddhist and Jaina texts and comprising both monarchical *rajyas* and non-monarchical *ganas* / *sanghas*. Clan-based Vedic orders gave way to territorial polities ranging from the four great monarchies of Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti to republican confederations such as Vajji and Malla, whose assemblies met in *santhagara* halls under oligarchic Kshatriya leadership rather than mass democracy. Parallel material change — wet-rice surplus, iron tools and weapons, Northern Black Polished Ware, planned towns, *Uttarapatha*–*Dakshinapatha* commerce, guild organisation, and the first punch-marked metallic coinage — underpinned the Second Urbanisation of the Gangetic plain and created the conditions in which Magadha, favoured by alluvial fertility, iron-rich hinterland and riverine location, could emerge as the most prosperous and expansive state of the age. The same social-economic transformation produced as many as **62** religious sects in the middle Gangetic plains; among them Jainism, traced through twenty-four *tirthankaras* and reformulated by **Vardhamana Mahavira**, offered *ahimsa*, *triratna*, five vows, and the multi-sided doctrines of *anekantavada* and *syadvada*, while six other unorthodox teachers — from Ajivika *niyati* fatalism to Charvaka materialism and Sanjaya’s scepticism — mapped the full *sramana* spectrum that contested Brahmanical sacrifice and birth-based *varna* privilege. Parallel to the *sramana* revolution, Magadha converted geographical *Jaladurga*, five-hilled Rajgir, Rajgir iron, war elephants and Gangetic alluvium into imperial supremacy through Haryanka (Bimbisara–Ajatashatru–Udayin), Shishunaga (Avanti conquest; Second Council under Kalashoka) and Nanda (*Ekrat* Mahapadma; Dhana Nanda) dynasties, while north-western India absorbed Achaemenid satrapy (`516–330 B.C.`) and Alexander’s campaign of `326 B.C.` (Ambhi, Porus at Hydaspes, Beas mutiny) that opened trade routes and fixed the chronological anchor for later Mauryan unification. Within the same sixth-century horizon **Gautama Buddha** (`563–483 B.C.`) taught the Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Middle Path, *Pratityasamutpada* and *Anatta*/*Anicca*, institutionalised the *Sangha*, and left the *Tripitaka* and four Councils through which Buddhism differentiated into Theravada/Hinayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana, contributing Pali/Prakrit literature, stupas, chaityas, viharas and the art traditions of sites such as Sanchi, Amaravati and related centres before its multi-causal decline in the land of its birth. |
1. Formation of States: Sources and the List of Sixteen Mahajanapadas
1. Formation of States: Sources and the List of Sixteen Mahajanapadas
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How do Buddhist and Jaina texts name and delimit the sixteen Mahajanapadas? | Literary Lists and Their Reliability: Formation of states in this period is framed as the rise of Mahajanapadas — monarchies and republics — known as the sixteen powerful states or *solasa-mahajanapada* of the early sixth century B.C. The standard Buddhist enumeration runs: (1) Anga, (2) Assaka or Asmaka, (3) Avanti, (4) Chedi, (5) Gandhara, (6) Kashi, (7) Kamboja, (8) Kosala, (9) Kuru, (10) Magadha, (11) Malla, (12) Machcha or Matsya, (13) Panchala, (14) Surasena, (15) Vriji, (16) Vatsa or Vamsa. Another Buddhist text, the *Digha Nikaya*, mentions only the first twelve Mahajanapadas and omits the last four of this list. The Jaina *Bhagavati Sutra* gives a slightly different list of sixteen; its author focuses on the countries of *Madhydesa* and of the far east and south only, and omits the nations from *Uttarapatha* such as Kamboja and Gandhara. That omission of all *Uttarapatha* countries “clearly shows that the Bhagvati list is of later origin and therefore less reliable.” Two kinds of states are included in the mahajanapada list — monarchies or *rajyas* and non-monarchical states or *ganas* / *sanghas*. Two of the mahajanapadas, the Vajji and Malla, were *sanghas*; Buddhist texts also name other *sanghas* beyond the sixteen — the Sakyas of Kapilvastu, Koliyas of Dvadaha and Ramagrama, Bulis of Alakappa, Kalamas of Kesaputta, Moriyas of Pipphalivaha, and Bhaggas (Bhargas) with their capital on Sumsumara hill. |
2. The Sixteen Mahajanapadas — Detailed Profiles
2. The Sixteen Mahajanapadas — Detailed Profiles
| Cue Words | Notes | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Summarise capital, location and key political fate for each of the sixteen Mahajanapadas. | Comparative Snapshot:
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→ Anga
→ Anga
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| Where was Anga located, and what was its economic and political significance? | Capital, Geography and Conquest: The capital city of Anga mahajanapada (around modern Bhagalpur and Munger districts in Bihar) was **Champa**. Magadha lay on its west and the Rajmahal hills on the east. It was a great centre of trade and commerce, and its merchants regularly sailed to distant **Suvarnabhumi**. Anga was annexed by Magadha in the time of **Bimbisara**. This was the one and only conquest of Bimbisara. |
→ Assaka (Asmaka / Ashmaka)
→ Assaka (Asmaka / Ashmaka)
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| Why is Assaka geographically unique among the sixteen Mahajanapadas? | Southern Mahajanapada on the Godavari: The capital of the Assakas was **Potana** or **Potali** or **Podana** (in modern Maharashtra). Assaka or the Ashmaka was located in *Dakshinapatha* or southern India. In Buddha’s time, the Assakas were located on the banks of the river **Godavari** — the only Mahajanapada south of the Vindhya mountains. The Ashmakas are also mentioned by **Pāṇini**. |
→ Avanti
→ Avanti
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How was Avanti organised politically and how did it relate to Magadha and Buddhism? | Four Great Monarchies and the Pradyota Line: The country of the Avantis was an important kingdom of western India and was one of the four great monarchies in India in the post era of Mahavira and Buddha — the other three being Kosala, Vatsa and Magadha. Avanti was divided into north and south by the river **Vetravati**. Initially, **Mahissati** (Sanskrit *Mahishamati*) was the capital of Southern Avanti, and **Ujjaini** (Sanskrit *Ujjayini*) of northern Avanti, but at the times of Mahavira and Buddha, Ujjaini was the capital of integrated Avanti. Both Mahishmati and Ujjaini stood on the southern high road called *Dakshinapatha*, which extended from Rajagriha to Pratishthana (modern Paithan). Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa, Nimar and adjoining parts of Madhya Pradesh. Avanti was an important centre of Buddhism, and some of the leading *theras* and *theris* were born and resided there. The **Pradyota** dynasty ruled over Avanti. Pradyota was contemporary to Gautama Buddha. **Ajatashatru**, the king of Magadha, fortified Rajagriha to protect it from an invasion led by Pradyota. Pradyota also waged war on **Pushkarasarin**, king of Takshashila. Pradyota’s chief queen was a disciple of the Buddhist monk **Mahakatyayana** and constructed a stupa in Ujjayini. Last king **Nandivardhana** of Avanti was defeated by king **Shishunaga** of Magadha. Avanti later became part of the Magadhan empire. |
→ Chedi
→ Chedi
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What were the capital, epic associations and later expansion of the Chedis? | Bundelkhand Polity and Kalinga Link: The Chedis, Chetis or Chetyas lay in eastern Bundelkhand near the Yamuna, midway between the kingdom of the Kurus and the Vatsas. **Sotthivati** or **Suktimati** of the Mahabharata was the capital of Chedi. **Shisupala** was a Chedi ruler and enemy of Krishna. The slaying of Shisupala became the central theme of a long poem by the poet **Magha**. A branch of the Chedis founded a royal dynasty in the kingdom of **Kalinga** according to the *Hathigumpha* inscription of **Kharvela**. |
→ Gandhara
→ Gandhara
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| Why was Gandhara pivotal for learning, trade and north-western politics? | Taxila, Uttarapatha and Achaemenid Horizon: Its capital was **Taxila**. Another main city was **Pushkalavati**. It covered the regions between Kabul and Rawalpindi in the North-Western Provinces, Peshawar, the Potohar plateau and on the Kabul River. The Taxila University was a renowned centre of learning in ancient times, where scholars from all over the world came to seek higher education. **Pāṇini**, the Indian genius of grammar, and **Kautiliya** are the world-renowned products of Taxila University. King **Pukkusati** or **Pushkarasarin** of Gandhara in the middle of the sixth century B.C. was the contemporary of king Bimbisara of Magadha. Gandhara was located on *Uttarapatha* and was a centre of international commercial activities. It was an important channel of communication with ancient Iran and Central Asia. Gandhara was often linked politically with the neighbouring regions of Kashmir and Kamboja. The Kambojans and Gandharans never came into direct contact with the Magadhan state until **Chandragupta** and **Kautiliya** arose on the scene; but these nations also fell prey to the **Achaemenids** of Persia during the reign of **Cyrus** (`558–530 B.C.`) or in the first year of **Darius**. Kamboja and Gandhara formed the twentieth and richest satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire. |
→ Kamboja
→ Kamboja
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What constitutional form did Kamboja follow, and how did Achaemenid expansion affect it? | Republican Constitution and Persian Conquest: Its capital was **Rajpur** (modern Rajori). It was located around the Punchh area of Kashmir. Kambojas are also included in the *Uttarapatha*. Ancient Kamboja is known to have comprised regions on either side of the Hindukush. The *Mahabharata* refers to several *Ganas* (or Republics) of the Kambojas. **Kautiliya’s *Arthashastra*** and **Ashoka’s Edict No. XIII** also attest that the Kambojas followed a republican constitution. **Pāṇini’s** Sutras, though they tend to convey that the Kamboja was a Kshatriya monarchy, imply through “the special rule and the exceptional form of derivative” he gives to denote the ruler of the Kambojas that the king of Kamboja was a titular head only. In a struggle for supremacy that followed in the sixth/fifth century B.C., the growing state of the Magadhas emerged as the most predominant power in ancient India, annexing several of the Janapadas of the *Majjhimadesa* (*Madhyadesa*). The Puranas lament that Magadhan emperor **Mahapadma Nanda** exterminated all Kshatriyas, none worthy of the name Kshatriya being left thereafter — referring to the Kasis, Kosalas, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas and other tribes of the east Punjab. The Kambojans and Gandharans, however, never came into direct contact with the Magadhan state until Chandragupta and Kautiliya arose. **Cyrus I** is said to have destroyed the famous Kamboja city called **Kapisi** (modern Begram). Kamboja and Gandhara formed the twentieth and richest satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire. |
→ Kashi
→ Kashi
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did Kashi’s pre-eminence give way to Kosala, and what cultural markers attach to it? | Pre-Buddhist Supremacy and Textile Renown: The kingdom was located in the region around its capital **Varanasi**, bounded by the **Varuna** and **Asi** rivers in the north and south, which gave Varanasi its name. Before Buddha, Kasi was the most powerful of the sixteen Mahajanapadas. Several *Jataka* tales bear witness to the superiority of its capital over other cities in India and speak highly of its prosperity and opulence. These stories tell of the long struggle for supremacy between Kashi and the three kingdoms of Kosala, Anga and Magadha. Kashi emerged as a leading textile manufacture in the time of Buddha; the *Kashya*, orange-brown robes of Buddhist monks, are said to be manufactured here. Although King **Brihadratha** of Kashi conquered Kosala, Kashi was later incorporated into Kosala during Buddha’s time. The *Matsya Purana* and **Alberuni** spell Kashi as *Kausika* and *Kaushaka* respectively; all other ancient texts read Kashi. According to the *Dasaratha Jataka* (one of the Buddhist birth stories), Ram was brother and husband of Sita and was king of Kashi (not Ayodhya). |
→ Kosala
→ Kosala
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did Kosala’s geography, Prasenjit’s diplomacy and Vidudabha’s reign shape its absorption into Magadha? | Awadh Kingdom and Magadhan Merger: Kosala was located to the north-west of Magadha, with its capital at **Savatthi** (*Sravasti*), about 60 miles north of modern Ayodhya in the Sahet-Mahet region. Its territory corresponded to modern Awadh (or Oudh) in Central and Eastern Uttar Pradesh. It had the river Ganges for its southern, the river Gandak (Narayani) for its eastern, and the Himalaya mountains for its northern boundary. Lord Rama was a king in this dynasty. Other great kings were **Prithu**, **Harishchandra**, **Dilip**, who find mention in different Puranas, Ramayan, and Mahabharat. Later, the kingdom was ruled by the famous king **Prasenjit** during the era of Mahavira and Buddha. King Prasenjit was highly educated. His position was further improved by a matrimonial alliance with Magadha: his sister was married to **Bindhusara** and part of Kashi was given as dowry. There was, however, a struggle for supremacy between king Prasenjit and king **Ajatasatru** of Magadha, which was finally settled once the confederation of Lichchavis became aligned with Magadha. Kosala was ultimately merged into Magadha when **Vidudabha** was Kosala’s ruler. Ayodhya, Saketa, Banaras, and Sravasti were the chief cities of Kosala. |
→ Kuru
→ Kuru
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did the Kurus shift from Vedic monarchical eminence to a republican king-consul constitution? | From Vedic Monarchy to *Rajashabdopajivin*: Kurus roughly corresponded to the modern Thanesar, state of Delhi and Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh. According to the *Jatakas*, the capital of the Kurus was **Indraprastha** (*Indapatta*) near modern Delhi. At Buddha’s time, the Kuru country was ruled by a titular chieftain (king consul) named **Korayvya**. The Kurus of the Buddhist period did not occupy the same position as they did in the Vedic period. The Kurus had matrimonial relations with the Yadavas, the Bhojas, the Trigartas and the Panchalas. Though a well-known monarchical people in the earlier period, the Kurus are known to have switched to a republican form of government during the sixth to fifth centuries B.C. In the fourth century B.C., Kautiliya’s *Arthashastra* also attests the Kurus following the *Rajashabdopajivin* (king consul) constitution. |
→ Magadha
→ Magadha
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What geographical and resource advantages made Magadha the most prosperous Mahajanapada? | Geography, Iron and Capitals: The Magadha was one of the most prominent and prosperous of mahajanapadas. The capital city **Pataliputra** (Patna, Bihar) was situated on the confluence of major rivers like Ganga, Son, Punpun and Gandak. The alluvial plains of this region and its proximity to the iron-rich areas of Bihar and Jharkhand helped the kingdom to develop good quality weapons and support the agrarian economy. These factors helped Magadha to emerge as the most prosperous state of that period. The kingdom of the Magadhas roughly corresponded to the modern districts of Patna and Gaya in southern Bihar and parts of Bengal in the east. During Buddha’s time its boundaries included Anga. Its earliest capital was **Girivraja** or **Rajagaha** (modern Rajgir in Bihar). The other names for the city were Magadhapura, Brihadrathapura, Vasumati, Kushagrapura and Bimbisarapuri. It was an active centre of Jainism in ancient times. The first Buddhist Council was held in Rajagaha in the Vaibhara Hills. Later on, Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha. In the sixth/fifth-century struggle for supremacy, Magadha emerged as the most predominant power in ancient India, annexing several Janapadas of *Majjhimadesa* (*Madhyadesa*). Puranic tradition credits Magadhan emperor **Mahapadma Nanda** with exterminating all Kshatriyas — referring to Kasis, Kosalas, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas and other tribes of the east Punjab — while Kamboja and Gandhara remained outside Magadhan contact until Chandragupta and Kautiliya. |
→ Malla
→ Malla
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How were the Malla ganas organised, and why are Kusinara and Pava sacred in Buddhist and Jain history? | Nine Territories, Santhagara and Sacred Deaths: The Mallas are frequently mentioned in Buddhist and Jain works. During the Buddhist period, the Mallas / Malls Kshatriya were republican people with their dominion consisting of nine territories corresponding to the nine confederated clans. These republican states were known as *Gana*. Two of these confederations — one with **Kusinara** (modern Kasia near Gorakhpur) as its capital and the second with **Pava** (modern Padrauna, 12 miles from Kasia) as the capital — had become very important at the time of Buddha. Kusinara and Pava are very important in the history of Buddhism and Jainism since Buddha and Lord Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, took their last breath at Kushinara and Pava/Pavapuri respectively. The Mallas originally had a monarchical form of government but later they switched to one of *Samgha* (republic), the members of which called themselves *rajas*. The Mallas appeared to have formed an alliance with the Licchhavis for self-defence but lost their independence not long after Buddha’s death and their dominions were annexed to the Magadhan empire. Malla along with other *Sanghiya* Kshatriyas like the Licchhavis, Koliyas and Shakya were ruling from their **Santhagara**, which was like an assembly hall. These Santhagara Kshatriyas were placed below Vedic Kshatriyas in the social hierarchy. |
→ Matsya (Machcha)
→ Matsya (Machcha)
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What was Matsya’s location, capital and limited political role? | Cattle Country of Rajasthan: Matsya or Machcha tribe lay to the south of the Kurus and west of the Yamuna, which separated them from the Panchalas. It roughly corresponded to the former state of Jaipur–Alwar–Bharatpur region of Rajasthan. It was suitable for cattle rearing. The capital of Matsya was at **Viratanagara** (modern Bairat), which is said to have been named after its founder king **Virata**. In Pali literature, the Matsyas are usually associated with the Surasenas. The Matsyas had not much political importance of their own during the time of Buddha. King **Sujata** ruled over both the Chedis and Matsyas, thus showing that Matsya once formed a part of the Chedi kingdom. |
→ Panchala
→ Panchala
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How was Panchala divided, and what constitutional change does Arthashastra record? | Uttara and Dakshina Panchala; King-Consul Form: The Panchalas occupied the country to the east of the Kurus between the mountains and river Ganges. It roughly corresponded to modern Budaun, Farrukhabad and the adjoining districts of Uttar Pradesh. It was divided into **Uttara-Panchala** and **Dakshina-Panchala**. The northern Panchala had its capital at **Adhichhatra** or **Chhatravati** (modern Ramnagar in the Bareilly District), while southern Panchala had its capital at **Kampilya** or Kampil in Farrukhabad District. The famous city of **Kanyakubja** or Kanauj was situated in the kingdom of Panchala. Originally a monarchical clan, the Panchalas appear to have switched to republican corporation in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C. In the fourth century B.C., Kautiliya’s *Arthashastra* also attests the Panchalas as following the *Rajashabdopajivin* (king consul) constitution. |
→ Surasena
→ Surasena
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did Surasena, Mathura and the Vrishni sangha connect Buddhism, Krishna worship and Magadha? | Mathura, Avantiputra and Yadava Sangha: Surasenas lay to the east of Matsya and west of Yamuna. This corresponds roughly to the Brij region of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan, and Gwalior region of Madhya Pradesh. It had its capital at **Madhura** or **Mathura**. **Avantiputra**, the king of Surasena, was the first among the chief disciples of Buddha, through whose help Buddhism gained ground in Mathura country. In Kautiliya’s *Arthashastra*, the **Vrishnis** are described as *samgha* or republic. The Vrishnis, Andhakas and other allied tribes of the Yadavas formed a *samgha* and **Vasudeva** (Krishna) is described as the *samgha-mukhya*. Mathura, the capital of Surasena, was also known at the time of **Megasthenes** as the centre of Krishna worship. The Surasena kingdom had lost its independence on annexation by the Magadhan empire. |
→ Vajji or Vrijji
→ Vajji or Vrijji
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What was the structure of the Vajji confederacy and how was Vaishali administered? | Eight Clans, Licchavis and Vajji Sangha Administration: The Vajjians included eight confederated clans (with **7707 Rajas**) of whom the Licchhavis, the Videhans, the Jnatrikas and the Vajjis were the most important. **Mithila** (modern Janakpur in district of Tirhut) was the capital of Videha and became the predominant centre of the political and cultural activities of northern India. It was in the time of king **Janaka** that Videha came into prominence. On the ruins of this kingdom arose the republics of the Licchhavis and Videhans and seven other small ones. The Licchavis were a very independent people. The mother of Mahavira was a Licchavi princess. **Vaishali** (modern Basarh in North Bihar) was the capital of the Licchavis and the political headquarters of the powerful Vajjian confederacy. Vaishali was located 25 miles north of the river Ganges and was a very prosperous town. The Second Buddhist Council was held at Vaishali. The Licchavis were followers of Buddha. Buddha is said to have visited them on many occasions. They were closely related by marriage to the Magadhas and one branch of the Licchavi dynasty ruled Nepal until the start of the Middle Ages. Vaishali, the headquarters of the powerful Vajji republic and the capital of the Licchavis, was defeated by king **Ajatasatru** of Magadha. Around `600 BCE`, the Licchavis were disciples of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. During their lifetimes, both Mahavira and Gautama Buddha visited Vaishali several times. Ananda Stupa, with an Asokan pillar, stood at Vaishali, the capital city. Vajji administration: Known as the Vajji Sangha (Vajji Confederation), Vajji consisted of several janapadas, gramas (villages) and gosthas (groups). The main gosthas were the Licchavis, Mallas and Śakyas. Eminent people were chosen from each khanda (district) as representatives to the Vajji gana parishad (people’s council of Vajji). These representatives were called gana mukhyas. The chairman of the council was titled gana pramukha but often he was addressed as a king although his post was neither dynastic nor hereditary. The other executives were the mahabaladhrikrita (a minister of internal security), the binishchayamatya or chief justice, dandadhikrita (other justices) etc. |
→ Vatsa (Vamsa / Vachchas)
→ Vatsa (Vamsa / Vachchas)
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did Vatsa’s monarchical capital and Udayana’s career illustrate monarchical prosperity on trade routes? | Kaushambi and King Udayana: The Vatsas are stated to be an offshoot of the Kurus who had shifted from Hastinapur and settled down at **Kaushambi**. The Vatsa corresponded with the territory of modern Allahabad and Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh. It had a monarchical form of government with its capital at **Kausambi** (identified with the village Kosam, 38 miles from Allahabad). Kausambi was a very prosperous city where a large number of millionaire merchants resided. It was the most important entrepôt of goods and passengers from the north-west and south. Ujjain and Kaushambi were connected by a major trade route. **Udayana** was the ruler of Vatsa in the sixth century B.C., the time of Buddha. He was very powerful, warlike and fond of hunting. Initially king Udayana was opposed to Buddhism but later became a follower of Buddha and made Buddhism the state religion. |
3. Gana-Sanghas (Republics): Nature, Structure and Debate
3. Gana-Sanghas (Republics): Nature, Structure and Debate
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What social and political principles defined the gana-sangha as a form of polity? | Equality among Ruling Clans; Rejection of Vedic Varna Privilege: In a society of *gana-sanghas*, people were treated on equal basis, at least among the ruling clans. They rejected the Vedic philosophy because it divided the whole society into four distinct classes or *varnas*. New Buddhist and Jaina ideas were popular among the people. It was possible that some independent-minded settlers of the plains did not like the Vedic orthodoxy or social division. They moved up towards the hills from the plains kingdoms and opened settlements there on equality. The *gana sangha* were also called *gana rajyas*. The term *gana* means people of equal status, *sangha* means assembly and *rajya* means governance. In a *gana sangha* the heads of the families belonged to a clan, or chiefs if there were more than one clan. There were some assemblies to govern the territories. The right to govern the territories was given only to a few ruling families. They alone were the members of the assemblies. Other members of the communities had no right of governance. The *gana sanghas* had only two divisions in the societies — the *kshatriya rajakula* or the ruling families and the *dasa karmakara* or slaves and labourers. Nowadays, some scholars use the term ‘republic’ to refer to *gana sanghas*. A republic is different from monarchy but it may have social stratification. Some others prefer to use the term ‘oligarchy’ under which some ruling families govern the territory. The Mahajanapadas of Vriji, Malla, Kuru, Panchal and Kamboj were republican states and so were other smaller states like Lichhavi, Shakya, Koliya, Bhagga, and Moriya. |
| What were the defining institutional characteristics of the gana-sanghas? | Characteristics of the Gana-Sanghas: Some *gana sanghas* consisted of a single clan, such as the Shakyas, Koliyas and Mallas. Some *gana sanghas* had many clans, such as Vrijjis and Vrishnis. *Gana sanghas* did not observe a *varna* society. Governance by the assemblies was the major political strength of the *gana sanghas*. These republican states had a **Gana-parishad** or an Assembly of senior and responsible citizens. This Gana-Parishad had the supreme authority in the state. All the administrative decisions were taken by this Parishad. The *rajas* sat as representatives in the assembly meetings of the ruling families. He enjoyed social and political powers. In a *gana sangha* land was owned by the clan, but the hired labourers and slaves worked on it. The *gana sanghas* tolerated individual and independent opinions and unorthodox views. The *gana sanghas* ruled over a small geographical area. *Gana-sangha* can be seen as a proto-state. It was unlike a kingdom, since power was diffused, stratification of society was limited and ramification of administration and coercive authority was not extensive. Brahmanas had no place in the early republics nor did they recognize these states in their law books because they did not get privilege in republics like they got in monarchies. Despite being conquered periodically, resilience of *Gana-sangha* was demonstrated by their reappearance and continued presence until mid-1st millennium A.D. Though the republican tradition became weak from the Maurya period onwards. |
| What literary, numismatic and Greek evidence proves the existence of Ganas and Sanghas? | Existence of the Republics (Ganas / Sanghas): Indian literature comprising Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jain texts mention different types of non-monarchical states called *Ganas* or *Sanghas*, and this account is corroborated by the statements of the Greek historians of Alexander’s campaigns in India. Most of the *ganas* were located in or near the Himalayan foothills in eastern India, while the major kingdoms occupied the fertile alluvial tracts of the Ganga valley. More details on *ganas* are provided by Buddhist and Jaina texts than Brahmanical ones. This is because kingship was central to the Brahmanical social and political ideology, and kinglessness was equated with anarchy. Brahmanas and *purohitas* may not have enjoyed the prestige they did in the *rajyas*. There are hardly any references to *purohitas* or gifts of land to Brahmanas in the *ganas*. The terms *gana* and *sangha* are used as synonymous political terms in some literary sources like **Panini’s *Ashtadhyayi*** and the **Majjhima Nikaya**. The Jaina *Ayaranga-Sutta* also refers to regions ruled by *ganas*. *Arthasastra* mentions several corporations such as the Lichchavikas, Vrijjikas, Madras etc. They had an assembly whose members were called *Rajas*. Coins also offer information on republics. The term *gana* on coins of the **Yaudheyas** and **Malavas** points to their non-monarchical polity. The existence of republics is also proved by testimony of Greek writers. **Megasthenes** says that most of the Indian cities of his time had a democratic form of government and also mentions several tribes who were free and had no kings. His statement is corroborated by **Arrian**, who asserts that the superintendents report everything to the king where people have a king and to the magistrates where the people were self-governed. He also refers to the small state of **Nysa** as having an oligarchical form of government. There were two types of *ganas* — those that comprised all or a section of one clan (the Sakyas and Koliyas, for instance), and those that comprised a confederation of several clans (the Vajjis and Yadavas). |
| Were the Ganas or Sanghas democratic in nature? | Oligarchy within Assembly — Not Mass Democracy: Early studies on the *ganas* by Nationalist historians tended to glorify them by exaggerating their democratic features. It was mainly to disapprove the assertions of Western scholars that Indians had never known anything other than despotic rule. The ancient Indian *ganas* were not, however, democracies. The translation of *gana* and *sangha* as ‘republic’ is misleading. Power was vested in the hands of an aristocracy comprising the heads of leading Kshatriya families. There was no single hereditary monarch. Instead, there was a chief and an aristocratic council which met in a hall called the **santhagara**. Effective executive power and day-to-day political management must have been in the hands of a smaller group. The political system of the *ganas* seems to have been a compromise between government by assembly and by an oligarchy within this assembly. The Lichchhavis of Vaishali had, according to the *Ekapana Jataka*, **7707 *rajas*** to govern the realm, and a similar number of *uparajas* (subordinate kings), *senapatis* (military commanders) and *bhandagarikas* (treasurers). The *Mahavastu*, however, puts the number at **168,000 *rajas*** in Vaishali. These figures should not be taken literally but they definitely suggest that the Lichchhavis had a large assembly, comprising the heads of Kshatriya families who called themselves *rajas*. They usually met once a year to transact public business and elect their leader, who had a fixed tenure. The Lichchhavi assembly had sovereign power and could pronounce death or exile punishments. Daily administrative matters were dealt with by a smaller council of **nine men** in the name of the larger assembly. Women, significantly, were not included in the assembly. The *ganas* were closely associated with the Kshatriyas and were named after the ruling Kshatriya clan; members were linked to each other through real or claimed kinship ties. However, apart from this hereditary elite, various other groups — Brahmanas, farmers, artisans, wage labourers, slaves, etc. — lived in these principalities and had a subordinate status, politically, and probably also economically and socially. They were not entitled to use the clan name and did not have rights of political participation. For instance, **Upali**, the barber who lived in Sakya territory, and **Chunda**, the metal smith who lived in Malla territory, were not part of the ruling elite and did not attend the assembly. |
| What factors explain the rise of republics? | Factors Responsible for Rise of Republics: The origin of the republics has been traced to the reaction against the pattern of life that evolved in the later Vedic period. The movement against the Vedic life was aimed at the abolition of the growing class and sex distinctions and directed against the acceptance of superstitious religious practices which took a heavy toll of cattle-stock. It was also directed against the hereditary kingship bolstered up by the Brahmanas, who arrogated to themselves all the rights and privileges to the exclusion of all the other sections of society. The new movement against Vedic orthodoxy derived inspiration from traditions about the remote past when there were no *Varna* distinctions, no domination by the upper classes on the lower ones and no coercive oppression of the people by hereditary king. This perhaps explains the legends according to which republics replaced monarchies. The traditional story of origin of the Shakyas, to which tribe the Buddha himself belonged, tells us that they had descended from the royal house of Kosala. We are told that four brothers and their four sisters were expelled by their royal father, so they preserved purity of their race by marrying among themselves. The account clearly indicates that the founders of republics broke away from the parent stock and moved to new areas. This may have been the case with Videha and Vaishali, which are referred to as monarchies transformed into republics. The tendency to break away from monarchies can be attributed to the socio-political conditions of the period. In the early period the members of the ruling class obtained a portion of the booty of war and tributes collected from the vanquished non-Aryans. But in subsequent times, when the victorious tribal chiefs came to occupy prominent and hereditary royal positions in the territorial states, they claimed all revenues for themselves. The leading members of the tribe resented the situation and demanded the right to collect taxes from the peasants and the right to bear arms and maintain their own army. The reaction gave birth to a political framework which was the republic. |
| What factors explain the decline of the ganas? | Factors Responsible for Decline of Republics: The history of the *ganas* of ancient India spanned a thousand years or so. They were eventually defeated by the monarchical states. Their greatest asset — governance through discussion — proved to be their greatest weakness as well because it paved the way for internal dissension, particularly when threatened by the aggressive monarchies. **Kautilya’s *Arthashastra***, a treatise on statecraft, outlines the special strategies that a would-be conqueror could use to vanquish the *ganas* and these were directed towards creating dissension among their ranks. Empire building and universal rule, the ambitions of monarchical states, spurred their military victories over the *ganas*, whose system of governance and military organization were unable to meet these challenges. Unlike the monarchies, standing armies might not have existed in the *ganas*. The Lichchhavis had a strong army but, when not engaged in battle, the soldiers probably retired to their lands. *Ganas* lacked economic resources (due to hilly region) as compared to monarchies (due to fertile plain land). |
4. The Kingdom (Monarchy): Nature and Administration
4. The Kingdom (Monarchy): Nature and Administration
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did monarchical kingdoms of the sixth century B.C. concentrate power, tax and loyalty? | Kingship, Dynasty and Compulsory Taxation: A kingdom means a territory ruled by a king or queen. In the 6th century B.C. along with the *gana sanghas* some kingdoms also emerged particularly in the Ganges plains. The land of these kingdoms was more fertile and people settled there at a later period than the *gana sanghas*. In a kingdom, the king enjoyed the sovereign power. All functions of the government centred round him. The king could compel obedience to laws and use force if necessary. There were customary laws of *jatis* and the region. Obedience to these two types of laws continued throughout ages. In a kingdom a family which rules over a long period becomes a dynasty. A king was assisted by advisory councils such as *sabha* and *parisad*. Earlier, people were more loyal to the clans. It weakened in a kingdom. Loyalty was shifted to the caste of an individual and to the king. Kingdoms were expanded over a large area and it weakened the popular assemblies. Three important kingdoms of this period were **Kasi, Kosala, and Magadha**. They often fought for the control of the Ganges plains for strengthening defence and economy. Important characteristics of a kingdom: Kingship was attributed to the wishes of God. Importance of the priests and Vedic rituals increased. Earlier, there was a rivalry between the brahmanas (priests) and kshatriyas (rulers), but in a kingdom they supported each other. Instead of voluntary tributes of the earlier period, kings started collecting compulsory taxes like bali, bhaga, kara and sulka or toll duties. There was a clear division between the ruler and the ruled, the rich and the poor. Some individuals or families possessed more lands than the others. The state had all rights over unused lands. After clearing wastelands or unused land the king received a tax from the cultivators, which was usually one sixth of the produce. In a kingdom the state generally controlled the means of production and distribution. |
| What officials and revenue institutions characterised monarchical administration? | Administration in the Monarchies: The most important feature of the administrative machinery was the rise of a class of officials known as *mahamatras*. General affairs were handled by the *sarvarthaka*; justice by the *vyavaharika*; army by the *sena nayaka*; work of cadastral survey or measurement of the king’s share in the produce by the *rajjugahakas*; chief accountant was the *ganaka*. The chariots were drawn by horses or wild asses and carried six men, of whom two were bowmen, two were shield bearers and two were charioteers. *Bhaga* was the most important source of state revenue which gave the king an epithet known as *shadabhagin*. *Grama-bhojaka* was the most important revenue collecting authority. The toll officer was *shaulikika* in the *dharmasutras* and *shulkadhyaksha* in the Pali texts. |
5. Republics, Monarchies and Democracy Compared
5. Republics, Monarchies and Democracy Compared
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What structural differences separated republican oligarchies from monarchical states? | Difference between Republic and Monarchies: In republics, every tribal oligarch claimed share in revenues from peasants. In the monarchies, the king claimed to be the sole recipient of such revenues. In the tribal oligarchy or republic, each *raja* (tribal oligarch) was free to maintain his own little army under his *senapati*. In a monarchy, the king maintained his regular standing army. He did not permit any other armed forces within his boundaries. Republics functioned under the leadership of the oligarchic assemblies, while a monarchy functioned under the individual leadership of the king. The Brahmanas had a considerable influence on the monarchical administration, while they were relegated to the background in the republics. Unlike monarchies, the kingship in the republics was not supposed to be hereditary. The chief was usually elected and was known as *mahasammata*, the great elect. Whereas the monarchies were concentrated in the Gangetic Plains, the republics were ranged round the northern periphery of these kingdoms — in the foothills of the Himalayas and just south of these, and in north-western India in modern Punjab. Size of states near foothills was smaller in comparison to the Gangetic plain and so it was easy to maintain republican form of government as kings would have been represented easily in the assembly of smaller states. If states became big, due to several factors like distance, it was not possible to have representative form of government. |
| How does a republic differ from a democracy, and was there democracy in republican Mahajanapadas? | Difference between Republic and Democracy: Many confuse a republic with a democracy. To know the difference between the two, one must first start with a monarchy. A monarchy is a form of government where the governance is carried out by a private individual (king or the emperor) who are not accountable to anybody else. A democracy is a form of government where the governance is carried out by representatives who are elected by the people. Now, if it is only a democracy, then again these elected representatives who rule the country will not be answerable to anybody as they will have not to follow any rules while governing the country. This is where a republic comes into picture. A republic is a government where the governance has to abide by a predefined set of rules, generally called as the “Constitution”. So those who govern the country in a republic should always abide by the rules defined in the Constitution and should never violate them. In republican Mahajanapadas, there was no real democracy as not everyone had right to choose their representatives. Only upper layer of society like Brahmanas, Kshatriyas had chance to have say in the representations. |
6. Rise of Urban Centres: Preconditions and Second Urbanisation
6. Rise of Urban Centres: Preconditions and Second Urbanisation
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What preconditions of surplus production and control made state formation and urbanisation possible? | Surplus Production and Control of Surplus: Both state formation and urbanization heavily relied on the surplus of agricultural production. The landholdings of the town people are so small that they cannot produce their own food themselves, so they have to depend on the village folk for its supply. It was only in the sixth century B.C. that the people of the Gangetic valley learnt to produce two or three crops in a year. They started wet rice cultivation. It became possible to produce more than any other crops. They gradually started producing more than their own requirement. Thus, surplus production in agriculture began. The iron-ploughshare-based food producing economy provided subsistence not only to direct producers but also to many others. Before the large-scale settlements in the Gangetic valley, most of the area was covered with forest or marsh. To clear them for agriculture, labour was needed. To control and direct such labour people felt the necessity of an administrative system. Production of surplus in a society has to be collected by a group; the collecting group distributes it later; the collecting or controlling group is very small; the collection, control and distribution of the surplus by the small group is acceptable to the larger society. In the Gangetic valley in sixth century B.C. the same thing happened. The small group which controlled the surplus agricultural products became powerful there. They claimed authority and special status in the society. On the other hand, another section of people could take some professional crafts as their livelihood, because they knew that even if they did not produce their own requirements of rice, pulses or vegetables, they could exchange it with their own crafts products in the market. But again, like the farmers, these craftsmen also had to rely on a group of people who collected and distributed the crafts products and organized the distribution of raw materials for the industry. This made possible collection of taxes and maintenance of armies on a long-term basis, and created conditions in which large territorial States could be formed and sustained. |
| What was the role of iron, and why was iron-plus-surplus not everywhere enough for urbanisation? | Role of Iron in Changing Society: The use of iron tools had a clear link with agriculture in `600 B.C.` Earlier people burnt forests to clear land. Now the iron axes helped clearing of forests. It provided more land for cultivation. Iron here was effectively used for preparing land for agriculture. Moreover, initially ploughshare enabled the farmers to plough deeper. It was more useful in the heavy and dry soils, particularly in the Gangetic valley. Iron not only brought a change in agriculture. More than agriculture, iron was of various use in the fields of crafts, weapons etc. The use of iron thus helped in the expansion of agricultural fields. It ultimately brought about urbanization and state formation. However, it would be wrong if one thinks that everywhere, where iron technology was used and there was agricultural surplus, urbanization took place or state formation occurred. Some places, particularly the megalithic societies, had both these features. But they remained as pre-state and pre-urban societies. On the other hand some places saw the growth of urban centers and formation of early states. This shows that apart from the use of iron there must be some other factor which was also important for the transformation of the societies. The factor was the process of collection and redistribution of surplus. It involved two steps. Firstly, a portion of the surplus came to the treasury as revenue. Secondly, to ensure a continuous supply of revenue, control over the farmers and craftsmen was also necessary. Thus, a new relationship was established in many areas between those who laboured in agriculture and crafts and those who controlled these labourers. Only these areas saw the growth of urban centers and formation of states in the 6th century B.C. |
| What caused Second Urbanisation in the Gangetic plain, and how did towns emerge? | Causes for Second Urbanization and Settlement Hierarchy: Planned township was the characteristic of Harappan civilization — the first known urbanization in India. It would be wrong to assume that everywhere in India urban centers grew along with the Harappan civilization. It could influence only those areas which were nearer to Harappa. There were still many societies untouched by it. There was a large number of hunter-gatherers, farmers and rural folks unaffected by its influence. Many of such societies started using copper, bronze and iron in the second millennium B.C. Such chalcolithic societies emerged in many parts of India, particularly in the Gangetic valley. Thus the Gangetic plain was the location of the second urbanization. In the 6th century B.C. different kinds of towns grew out in the areas of earlier settlement in the Gangetic plain. First, some areas, which were the centres of political and administrative activities, emerged as towns. Capitals of different kingdoms thus soon became urban areas — e.g. **Rajagriha** of Magadha, **Sravasti** in Koshala, **Kausambi** in Vatsa, **Champa** in Anga and **Ahicchatra** in Panchala. Secondly, in the 6th century B.C. some other townships grew out of economic activities, particularly market. Different villages, producing different agricultural surplus, selected a particular convenient place, brought their own commodities and exchanged them with that of others — the barter system. Some of such selected market places were located on trade routes; to such places goods were brought from far distant places. The process of urbanization was faster and more intense in such places. **Ujjain** was the most important urban center to grow out of such a process. Thirdly, religion played an important role in urbanization in the Gangetic plain. In the 6th century B.C. people had worship places in only a few places. There used to be big gatherings with people coming from distant places. Gradually, these religious places saw the emergence of towns. **Vaishali** was one such town to grow out of religious importance. Fourthly, there were some places which had all the above mentioned characteristics — important for administration, economy and religion. **Kausambi** was such an urban centre. In these urban centers there was a greater concentration of people than in the villages. There were more alternative sources of livelihood and more products were available for their use. The exchange centers and the local markets were known as *nigama* and *pulabhedana*. They were greater than the *gramas*. The towns were called *nagaras*. Larger towns were called the *mahanagaras*. Another factor that helped the process was the use of coins. Although literary evidences regarding the use of coins in the form of *Nishka* or *Satamana* are found, the use of coins became regular during the period of Buddha. The first coins in India, called punch-marked metallic coins, came at this time. Towards the end of this period a script was also developed. The period produced texts dealing with measurement (*Sulvasutras*), which presupposes writing. |
| What two ways and two areas of urbanisation does the source describe? | Two Ways and Two Areas of Urbanization: Some ancient books refer to two ways by which towns emerged. First one was related with economic activities. Villages could be formed on the basis of a particular profession — blacksmith, pottery, carpentry, cloth weaving, basket weaving etc. These villages grew in places where raw materials were available. They had to distribute their produced goods. So, they linked villages to big routes or some markets. These villages were gradually transformed into towns. When the towns had both production and distribution facilities, they became important commercial centers. A few of such centers were **Vaisali, Shravasti, Champa, Rajagriha, Kausambi and Kashi**. Some towns like **Ujjain** and **Taxila** could send their commodities to distant places because they were situated on the trade routes. There were two main areas in the Gangetic plain where urbanization occurred — western or doab area and eastern plains. There was a concentration of population in these two areas. People used metals like copper, bronze, and iron. Therefore, the society is called a chalcolithic society. Along with urbanization, states were also formed in these two areas. But there was a difference in these two societies. The doab and western Ganges plain saw the growth of **Painted Gray Ware Culture** (`1200 B.C.`–`400 B.C.`) — pots with gray paint on the surface. On the other hand, the eastern societies used potteries with black and red surface. Later on, soft, bright and luxurious pots were used there — the **Northern Black Polished Ware** (`700–200 B.C.`). Archaeologically, the sixth century B.C. marks the beginning of the Northern Black Polished (NBP) phase, characterised by a glossy, shining type of pottery. |
| How did migration, trade items and urban planning shape Gangetic towns, and how did they differ from Harappa? | Population, Trade Items, Planning and Comparison with Harappa: Initially, the population of the doab region was small. It settled close to the rivers. Later on, it expanded. Some moved to the interior places and cleared land for cultivation. In the east, people used wet rice cultivation. It gave higher return. Under such condition people from the north-west migrated to these areas of the Gangetic plains. Scarcity of water or a change in climate perhaps were two reasons for which people from the Punjab and north-west migrated to the doab region. These people, who wanted fertile land, migrated to the eastern Gangetic plains. The new settlers influenced the early settlers with some technological knowledge and they mingled with the existing cultures. The process of urbanization accelerated after this. Most common trade items were iron objects such as hoes, sickles, knives, nails etc. Salt was mined in the north-west. Along with it horses were brought to the Gangetic valley. In trade, the exchange system or barter system was used. There were some common characteristics in a town of the Gangetic plains in the 6th century B.C. There were particular and specific places which were allotted to different occupational groups. The palace or the court of the kings or the assembly hall was built there. Towards the later part of urbanization beautiful monumental buildings were built as palaces. Some towns gave religion more importance and built religious institutions in the middle of the towns. **Kausambi** built a Buddhist monastery at the center. On the other hand, some towns did not give religion much importance. Monastery or temple was absent at **Bhirmound**. In case of the second urbanization people did not make any conscious attempt to imitate the first. There were some citadels or tall fortresses built at the centres to monitor over the towns. Many of the towns or urban centres emerged on the banks of the rivers in the second urbanization. Floods could inundate such towns at any time during the rainy seasons. But no attempt was made to protect it by erecting brick foundations particularly walls. There was also a difference in the necessities of the towns people in the Gangetic plains and Harappa. It brought some differences in characteristics between these two urbanizations. |
7. NBPW Culture and Second Urbanisation
7. NBPW Culture and Second Urbanisation
| Cue Words | Notes | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| What is Northern Black Polished Ware culture and how does it relate to state formation? | NBPW as Urban Iron Age Horizon: The Northern Black Polished Ware culture is an urban Iron Age culture of the Indian Subcontinent, lasting `700–200 BCE`, succeeding the Black and red ware culture (of early iron age, 12th–9th century BCE, directly influencing the Painted Grey Ware and Northern Black Polished Ware cultures) and Painted Grey Ware culture (of early iron age, roughly `1200 BC`–`400 BC`, a successor of the Black and red ware culture). It developed beginning around `700 BC`, or in the late Vedic period, and peaked from `500–300 BC`, coinciding with the emergence of 16 great states or mahajanapadas in Northern India, and the subsequent rise of the Mauryan Empire. NBPW was a very glossy, shining type of pottery which was made of very fine fabric. It was a fine gray metallic ware with a glossy black surface. It is a hard, wheelmade ware, mainly bowls and dishes. The surface is made with an alkali flux and fired in a reducing atmosphere (that is why it is associated with iron age and iron also needed to be fired in high temperature just like NBPW ware). It was a luxury style of burnished pottery used by elites. It is associated with the emergence of Second Urbanisation since the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization. This re-urbanization was accompanied by massive embankments and fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, and wide-ranging trade networks. There are similarities between NBPW culture and the much earlier Harappan cultures, among them the ivory dice and combs and a similar system of weights. Other similarities include the utilization of mud, baked bricks and stone in architecture, the construction of large units of public architecture, the systematic development of hydraulic features and a similar craft industry. There are also, however, important differences between these two cultures; for example, rice, millet and sorghum became more important in the NBP culture. The NBP culture may reflect the first state-level organization in the Indian Subcontinent. | ||||||||||||||
| Which sites mark the NBPW distribution? | Important NBPW Sites:
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8. Trade Routes: Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha
8. Trade Routes: Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What were the major riparian ports and the structure of Uttarapatha? | Ports, Northern Highway and International Links: Of the riparian ports, **Sahajati** (in Central India), **Kausambi** on the Yamuna, **Banaras**, **Champa** and later **Pataliputra** on the Ganges and **Pattala** on the Indus, deserve special mention. The great inland routes mostly radiated from Banaras and Sravasti. The chief articles of trade were silk, embroidery, ivory, jewellery and gold. *Uttarapatha* or the great northern road ran from eastern Afghanistan, through the Gangetic plains, to Bengal. The *Mahabharata* gives account of the ancient roadways. It refers to *Uttarapatha* which linked the territories of **Kirata** (perhaps of Magadha), **Kamboja**, **Gandhara** and **Yavana** countries. *Uttarapatha* was the main trade route that followed along the river Ganges, crossed the Indo-Gangetic watershed, ran through the Punjab to Taxila (Gandhara) and further to Balkh (Bactria) in Central Asia. The eastern terminus of the *Uttarapatha* was **Tamraliptika** or Tamluk located at the mouth of Ganges in West Bengal. This route became increasingly important due to increasing maritime contacts with the seaports on the eastern coast of India during the Maurya rule. Documentation exists that the states from the *Uttarapatha* like Kamboja and Gandhara were actively engaged in commercial intercourse not only with the states of Gangetic valley but also with Myanmar, Suvarnabhumi, south-west China and other nations in Southeast Asia. The ancient Pali literature says that merchants from the nations of *Uttarapatha* were engaged in international trade following the well-known **Kamboja-Dvaravati Caravan Route**. Merchants from Kamboja, Gandhara, Sovira, Sindhu and other places used to sail from ports of **Bharukaccha** (modern Bharoch) and **Supparaka Pattana** (modern Nalla-Sopara, near Mumbai) for trade with Southern India, Sri Lanka and nations of Southeast Asia. Huge trade ships sailed from there directly to south Myanmar. This trade had been going on for hundreds of years before the Buddha. Some merchants from northern India had settled in Myanmar, in the ports and towns located at the mouths of Irrawaddy, Citranga (Sittang) and Salavana (Salween) rivers. The name Irrawaddy for the chief river of Burma (Myanmar) was copied from river Irrawati (Ravi) of north Punjab. *Uttarapatha* was famous from very early times for its fine breed of horses and the horse dealers. There are ancient references to an ongoing trade between the nations of *Uttarapatha* and the states of East India. Buddhist and Puranic sources attest that the merchants and horse dealers from *Uttarapatha* would bring horses and other goods for sale down to eastern Indian places like Savatthi (Kosala), Benares (Kasi), Pataliputra (Magadha), Pragjyotisha (Assam) and Tamarlipitka (in Bengal). Evidence exists that horse-dealers from Kamboja in the *Uttarapatha* were trading horses as far as Sri Lanka. The merchants from north-west Kamboja had been conducting horse-trade with Sri Lanka following the west coast of India since remote antiquity. A Pali text *Sihalavatthu* of fourth century specifically attests a group of people known as Kambojas living in Rohana in Sri Lanka. |
| What was Dakshinapatha and why did Sarnath matter at the highway crossing? | The Great Southern Highway: *Dakshinapatha* (the “great southern highway”) was the name of southern high road which originated from Varanasi (Magadha), followed through Ujjaini and Narmada valley to Pratisthana (Paithan) in the Mahajanapada of Ashmaka, a kingdom on the Godavari River (in modern Maharashtra), onwards to the western coast of India and running in the southern direction. The *Dakshinapatha* trade route was one of two great highways that have connected different parts of the sub-continent since the Iron Age. The other highway was the *Uttarapatha* or the great northern road. The trajectory of the northern road has remained roughly the same from pre-Mauryan times and is now NH2. However, the southern road appears to have drifted. The crossing of the two highways made **Sarnath** (just outside Varanasi) a major place of exchange of goods and ideas in ancient India. This is why the Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarnath. The philosophies of the easterners were disseminated precisely by the intercourse that went on along the *Uttarapatha* and the *Dakshinapatha* trade routes. |
9. Economic Growth and Introduction of Coinage
9. Economic Growth and Introduction of Coinage
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did foreign trade, guilds and coinage drive prosperity and urban industry? | Prosperity, Guilds and Medium of Exchange: Besides the establishment of big empires, another important feature of the age was increased prosperity and the growth of towns. The primary reason of increased prosperity of India was its growth of foreign trade with the countries of the North-West, Western countries and several countries of Asia. The development of a stable agricultural society led to concepts of private property and land revenue, and to new forms of political and economic organization. Commerce among the Janapadas expanded through the Ganges Valley, and powerful urban trading centers emerged. Craftsmen and traders established guilds and a system of banking and lending emerged. The towns became good markets and both artisans and merchants were organised into guilds under their respective headmen. Eighteen of the more important crafts were organised into guilds (*Sreni*, *Puga*), each of which was presided over by a *Pramukha* (foreman), *Jyeshthaka* (elder) or *Sresthin* (chief). *Sarathavaha* was the caravan-leader. Towns became not only the centres of trade but centres of industries as well. Various goods were produced on a large scale to feed the foreign trade and that could be possible only in town or vice versa. By that time, Indian rulers had started minting good coins of different metals. It helped in the development of trade and growth of industries because coins proved to be a good medium of exchange and, thus, facilitated transactions. The system of barter was also prevalent. This led to localization of crafts and industries and the emerging of artisans and merchants as important social groups. |
| Why did punch-marked coins arise, and what were their forms, symbols and weights? | Introduction of Coinage — Punch-Marked Series: The need for coins arose due to difficulty in continuing with the barter system for smaller or fractional items or where the mutual needs of the parties to the barter were disproportionate. The terms *nishka* and *satamana* in the Vedic texts are taken to be names of coins but then seem to have been prestige objects made of metals (silver and few copper). It seems that in Vedic times exchange was carried on through barter and sometimes cattle served as currency. The first coins in India were minted around the 6th century B.C. by the Mahajanapadas of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, and certainly before the invasion of Alexander the Great in the 4th century B.C. Cities began to use coins made of metals for the first time. Punch-marked coins are a type of early Coinage of India, dating to between about the 6th and 2nd centuries B.C. As the name denotes, various symbols were ‘punched’ manually and separately on the coins when the metal was still hot. Punches on these coins included most commonly the sun and six-armed symbols, and various forms of geometrical patterns, circles, wheels, human figures, various animals, bows and arrows, hills and trees etc. The prominent use of the Sun or Solar symbol is not unusual as since time immemorial mankind and civilizations across the world have associated Sun with divine powers, source of life etc. What has not been ascertained as yet is the meaning and significance behind placing these symbols on the coins or the particular order of placing the symbols or whether these symbols relate to a particular king, mint, denomination etc. In the absence of any script or legend on the PMC, these have been attributed to the various Janapadas on the basis of the nature, number and type of symbols found on the coins as these were localized to a particular area or region that were also the source for most coin hoards found in those areas. Most of the PMCs are uniface; however many bear smaller counter-punches both on the front (obverse) and back (reverse) of the coin indicating marks placed as either a guarantee of the weight or authenticity by the issuer or as ‘test’ for the purity of the metal content (maybe forgers existed then also). The coins of this period were punch-marked coins called *Puranas*, *Karshapanas* or *Pana*. Several of these coins had a single symbol, for example, Saurashtra had a humped bull, and Dakshin Panchala had a Swastika; others, like Magadha, had several symbols. These coins were made of silver (also Copper) of a standard weight but with an irregular shape. This was gained by cutting up silver bars and then making the correct weight by cutting the edges of the coin. They are mentioned in the *Manu*, *Panini*, and Buddhist *Jataka* stories. Basic silver punch-marked coin of the usual type was *Kasapana* or *pana* (**3.76 gram**). The *masa* or *masika* weighed 1/16th of this. Various intermediate weights are attested, as well as large silver coins of 30 and 20 *masas* and small half *masa* found. Punch-marked Copper Coins were based on a different standard — a *masa* of **0.58 gram** and *Karsapana* of **9.33 gram**. Quarter *masas* in copper called *Kakinis* (**0.13 gram**) as well as large coins of 20, 30 and 45 copper *masas* were found. Only one gold punch-marked coin is known and gold was rarely minted before the beginning of the Christian era. |
| How did Mauryan coinage continue and regulate the punch-marked tradition? | Maurya Coins and State Regulation: During the Mauryan period, punch-marked coins continued to be issued in large quantities; these are a continuation of the Magadha Kingdom coinage as the ruling house of this empire established the Mauryan Empire. They contained on average **50–54 grains** of silver in each coin. The basic coin is called the *Karshapana* (*pana*) in numismatic terms but the *Arthasastra* stated there are at least 4 denominations of silver coins in *pana*, *ardhapana* (half *pana*), *pada* (quarter *pana*) and *ashta-bhaga*, or *arshapadika* (one-eighth *pana*). But only the *Karshapana* is found. The style of these coins is not artistic, but they do show recognizable designs such as Buddhist Shrines and *Chaitya*, or animals such as the elephant, horse, lion, etc. Literary texts of Post-Vedic age and Mauryan age like *Asthadhyayi*, *Arthasastra*, Buddhist text mention the names of the coin: *Satmana* (larger silver coin); *Karsapana* (smaller silver coin) — most common; *Pana* (silver coin); *Ashtadhyayi* mentions salaries of officers in *Pana*; *Masaka* (large copper coin); *Kakini* (smaller silver coin — as stated in source). Geographical extent of the coin: almost all over India — north-west, Gangetic valley region, Deccan, even in South. Important hoards: Taxila; Amravati; Eran (M.P.); Azamgarh (U.P.); Nandagaon (U.P.) etc. Metals: mostly silver but also some copper; absence of gold. Shape: irregular — some rectangular, some square, some round, some with no specific shape. Design: Obverse (front) has symbol — in general one symbol but in some 2 to 5 symbols also; Reverse (backside) is blank or having minute symbol; no writing or legend on the coin. Various symbols: human figures; weapons; animals like humped bulls in Saurastra; tools; trees; geometric designs like Swastika in Dakshina Panchala; mountain; sun; wheel; birds like peacock in Maurya; trees in railing (Buddhist influence). Issued mostly by state; but as per some references, there is possibility of city issue or guild issue indicative of private minting. City issues may be associated with Kausambi, Era, Mahismati, Vidisha, Taxila, Varanasi etc. A unique discovery from Kabul region is bent bar coin with no symbols. Evidences from Mauryan times throw light on regulation by state and we get references of certain officers who were controller and regulator: *Lakshanadhyaksha* — incharge of mint; *Roopdarshak* / *Roopdarka* — examiner of coins. It appears that Mauryan state monopolised coin issue and also circulation of coins increased during Mauryan time in comparison with earlier period. Technology and weight: based on punching technology as symbols were hammered with punches; silver of standard weight but irregular shape by cutting silver bars and edges. Basic unit of coin standard was “*Ratti*” also known as “*Raktika*” or “*Krishnala*” — 1 *Ratti* = **1.8 Grains** (1 Grain = **64.79 mg**). Two weight standards of silver coins: *Satamana* = 180 grain = 100 *ratti*; *Karspana* = 32 *ratti*. In the North, following the fall of the Maurya Empire and the increased influence of the Greco-Bactrians and Indo-Greeks, punch-marked coins were replaced by cast die-struck coins, as visible in the Post-Mauryan coinage of Gandhara. |
10. Trade during Pre-Mauryan Period (600–325 B.C.)
10. Trade during Pre-Mauryan Period (600–325 B.C.)
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How do Buddhist texts and archaeology reconstruct internal Uttarapatha trade? | Internal Trade — Uttarapatha: In Buddhist texts, people on the move include the Buddha and his disciples, renunciants, teachers, students, professionals, kings, soldiers, and traders. All these different kinds of people must have travelled along broadly similar routes and the accounts of their journeys give an idea of the routes of travel, communication, and trade. Archaeological evidence also helps identify trade routes and interactions. The two major trans-regional routes of the time were known as the *Uttarapatha* and *Dakshinapatha* (these terms were also sometimes used to refer to regions). The *Uttarapatha* was the major trans-regional trade route of northern India. It stretched from the north-west, across the Indo-Gangetic plains, up to the port of **Tamralipti** on the Bay of Bengal. The *Uttarapatha* had a northern and a southern sector. The northern sector ran through Lahore, Jalandhar, Saharanpur, along the Gangetic plains to Bijnor, and then through Gorakhpur, towards Bihar and Bengal. The southern sector connected Lahore, Raiwind, Bhatinda, Delhi, Hastinapura, Kanpur, Lucknow, Varanasi, and Allahabad, and then moved on towards Pataliputra and Rajagriha. There were many feeder routes connected to the main artery of the *Uttarapatha*. For instance, one connected it with Rajasthan (an important source of metals and minerals), another with Sindh, and yet another to the Orissa coast. Literary evidences: The *Ashtadhyayi* mentions various kingdoms located along it. Details of the route can be worked out on the basis of references in the *Vinaya Pitaka* and *Jatakas*. Archaeological evidence corroborates the literary sources: the distribution of PGW settlements suggests a broad similarity of material culture and cultural interaction across many regions of north India. By the NBPW phase, there is archaeological corroboration for the entire stretch of the *Uttarapatha*. The wide distribution of NBPW itself suggests wide-ranging inter-regional contacts. Raw materials and finished goods were also moving up and down the route. For instance, lapis lazuli from Afghanistan and central Asia are found at sites extending from the Swat valley in the north-west to the Burdwan district of Bengal. Silver, which may have been an import from the same region (though it was also available in Rajasthan) and used for making coins, has been found all along the *Uttarapatha*. Semi-precious stones such as amethyst and topaz were moving from the Rajamahal, Singhbhum, and Dhalbhum areas of eastern India to sites in the middle and upper Ganga valley. Shell was imported from the eastern coast to sites in the lower and middle Ganga valley. The *Uttarapatha* was a land-cum-river route. Buddhist texts refer to the riverine movement of traders and goods along the Ganga. The distribution of PGW and NBPW sites along Ganga and its tributaries — especially the Yamuna, Ghaghara, and Sarayu — suggests that rivers formed major communication routes. The *Ashtadhyayi* and *Jatakas* mention ferries. But movements across land were clearly also important. Buddhist texts frequently talk of caravans of traders moving along land routes, and Buddhist monks too moved mainly on foot. |
| How is Dakshinapatha documented in literature and archaeology for the pre-Mauryan age? | Internal Trade — Dakshinapatha: The *Dakshinapatha* — the great southern trade route — is mentioned in the *Arthashastra*, but was operational from the early historical period. It stretched from Pataliputra in Magadha to Pratishthana on the Godavari, and was also connected to ports on the western coast. Although there are several references to trans-Vindhyan regions in Buddhist texts, and more so in the *Mahabharata* and *Ramayana*, because of the northern bias of these texts, there is a certain vagueness about the southern routes. Buddhist texts refer to merchants travelling from Pataliputra and Kaushambi to Pratishthana. Buddhist texts talk of caravans with **1,000 carts** moving from one *janapada* to another, passing through deserted areas. There is mention of caravans paying tolls and taxes to the king’s men. Customs officials (*kammikas*) levied taxes on merchandise and could confiscate the goods of tax evaders. There are stories of robbers who waylaid traders and monks moving along the roads that connected the big cities. It was the job of royal officials known as *rajabhatas* to safeguard the lives and property of such travellers. The physician **Jivaka** moved along the *Dakshinapatha* on his way to Avanti. Archaeological evidences: The discovery of PGW in the Malwa region and NBPW in central India and the Deccan provide archaeological corroboration of this route. The Vindhyas provided iron, copper, and various types of stone to settlements in the Ganga valley, and these raw materials must have moved along the northern sector of the *Dakshinapatha*. Trade and interaction along this route increased in subsequent centuries. |
| What land and sea routes linked the subcontinent to external markets? | External Trade — Land and Sea: The internal trade routes joined the external routes, which linked the subcontinent with other areas. Overland routes connecting Taxila with north Afghanistan and Iran were important for obtaining raw materials such as silver, gold, lapis lazuli, and jade. There may have been a long-distance trade in fine wood between India and Mesopotamia. The central Asia route had been important from neolithic times onwards. The route via the Bolan pass and through north Afghanistan was also important. Cities such as Taxila and Charsada were major commercial centres. The routes into India from the north-west were followed not only by traders but also by invading Persian and Macedonian armies. The route from Bengal to Myanmar was also probably important, and jade may have been an import from the latter region. Sea travel and trade are mentioned in the Pali canon. The *Anguttara Nikaya* refers to sea merchants who had a bird aboard their ship to sight land. There is mention of the maritime route to West Asia. The *Jatakas* contain many accounts of sea voyages. Commodities such as sandalwood and pearls were probably exported from sites along the eastern and western coasts to West Asia and the Mediterranean. Maritime trade with Southeast Asia also began in the early historical period. The expansion of trade led to the emergence of traders as an important urban group. It was no doubt because of their economic affluence that Buddhist texts describe *vanijja* (trade) as one of the high occupations. |
11. Emergence of Heterodox Sects — Opening Context
11. Emergence of Heterodox Sects — Opening Context
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did social-economic change produce the intellectual climate of the sramanas? | Parivrajakas, Opposition to Brahmanical Sacrifice, and Philosophical Range: The changing features of social and economic life, such as the growth of towns, expansion of the artisan class, and the rapid development of trade and commerce were closely linked with changes in another sphere: that of religion and philosophical speculation. The intellectual and philosophical response to these social changes was rich and varied, marking a high point in philosophical achievements which remained unsurpassed in later centuries. All the major ideas of Indian philosophy can be seen, at least in rudimentary form, in the 6th century B.C. The period was characterised by the *parivrajakas* or *sramanas* who renounced their household status. They wandered about from place to place with the object of meeting and having discussions with others like them. It is through this ceaseless movement that they propagated their ideas and built up their following. What united all the *sramanas* together was their opposition to the established tradition of the Brahmins based on the cult of sacrifice, central to the ideology of the latter. They were also opposed to the claims of the brahmana’s pre-eminence in society and for these reasons they have been described as non-conformist sects or heterodox sects. The ideas themselves spanned an entire range from annihilationism (*Ucchedavada*) to eternalism (*Sashvat-vada*) and from the fatalism of the Ajivikas to materialism of the Charavakas. |
| How many sects arose, and which two became the most potent reform movements? | Sixty-Two Sects; Jainism and Buddhism as Leading Reforms: We hear of as many as **62** religious sects which arose in the middle Gangetic plains in the sixth century B.C. Of these sects, **Jainism** and **Buddhism** were the most important, and they emerged as the most potent religious reform movements. |
12. Causes for the Rise and Growth of Heterodox Sects
12. Causes for the Rise and Growth of Heterodox Sects
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What Kshatriya reaction to Brahmana monopoly helped produce new religions? | Varna Tension and Kshatriya Protest: The *varna*-divided society seems to have generated tensions during the sixth century B.C. The **Kshatriyas** who functioned as rulers reacted strongly against the ritualistic domination of the brahmanas and seem to have led a kind of protest movement against the importance attached to birth in the *varna* system. The kshatriya reaction against the domination of the priestly class called brahmanas, who claimed various privileges, was one of the causes of the origin of new religions. **Buddha** and **Mahavira** both came from Kshatriya origin. |
| How did iron-plough agriculture and cattle-need favour Ahimsa over Vedic sacrifice? | Agricultural Economy, Cattle Wealth and Non-Killing (*Ahimsa*): The agricultural economy based on the iron ploughshare required the use of bullocks, and it could not flourish without animal husbandry. But the Vedic practice of killing cattle indiscriminately in sacrifices stood in the way of the progress of new agriculture. The newly emerging peasant communities who appear to have become dominant did not approve the killing of cattle in the sacrifice, as cattle wealth was very essential to supplement agricultural operations. The non-killing or ***Ahimsa*** preached by the heterodox sects appears to have made these social groups opt for the heterodox sects. |
| Why did Vaisyas and trading groups favour Buddhism and Jainism? | Vaisya Trade Support and Social Status Elevation: The increase in trade and commerce added to the importance of the **vaishyas**. The vaishyas being ranked third in the brahmanical society looked for some religion which could improve their position. The patronage extended to trade and commerce in particular by Buddhism and Jainism made the merchants, rich and poor agriculturists and artisans favour Buddhism and Jainism. The new forms of property created social inequalities and caused misery and suffering to the masses of the people. So the common people yearned to return to primitive life. They wanted to get back to the ascetic ideal which dispensed with the new forms of property and the new style of life. |
| Why did complex Vedic ritual and Upanishadic philosophy fail the common people? | Expensive Rituals, Unintelligible Philosophy, and Need for Simple Salvation: The complex rituals and sacrifices advocated in the Later Vedic period were not acceptable to the common people. The sacrificial ceremonies were also found to be too expensive. The superstitious beliefs and mantras confused the people. The teachings of the **Upanishads**, an alternative to the system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical in nature and therefore not easily understood by all. Therefore, what was needed in the larger interests of the people was a simple, short and intelligible way to salvation for all people. Such religious teaching should also be in a language known to them. This need was fulfilled by the teachings of Buddha and Mahavira. The code of conduct prescribed for lay people by these new religions appeared to be more practical than performing protracted rites through the Brahmin priest. |
13. Jainism — Origins, Tirthankaras and Symbols
13. Jainism — Origins, Tirthankaras and Symbols
| Cue Words | Notes | ||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| How do Jains construct the antiquity of their faith through twenty-four tirthankaras? | Twenty-Four Tirthankaras; Rishabha First, Mahavira Last: Jainism is one of the oldest religions in the world. Jains traditionally trace their history through a succession of twenty-four propagators of their faith known as ***tirthankaras*** with **Rishabh** as the first and **Mahavira** as the last. The names of two Jain *tirthankaras*, **Rishabha** and **Arishtanemi**, are found in the *Rig Veda*. The *Vishnu Purana* and the *Bhagavat Purana* describe Rishabha as an incarnation of **Narayana**. The mythology of the *tirthankaras*, most of whom were born in the middle Ganga basin and attained *nirvana* in Bihar, seems to have been created to give antiquity to Jainism. Not much is known about the first twenty-two *tirthankaras* except **Parshvanatha** (twenty-third and the immediate predecessor of Mahavira), who seems to have been a historical figure. He was the son of king **Asvasena** of Banaras, and enjoined on his disciples the four great vows of non-injury (*ahimsa*), truthfulness (*satya*), non-stealing (*asateya*), and non-possession (*aparigraha*). To these, Mahavira added the vow of *brahmacharya* or continence. | ||||||||||||||||||
| What names and symbols identify the principal tirthankaras? | Tirthankara Names and Symbols:
|
→ Vardhamana Mahavira — Life
→ Vardhamana Mahavira — Life
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What are the birth, family, renunciation and Kaivalya details of Mahavira? | Birth, Kinship with Magadha, Renunciation and Omniscience: **Vardhamana Mahavira** was born in `540 B.C.` (some say in `599 BCE`) in a village **Kundagrama** near Vaishali which is identical with **Basarh** in the district of Vaishali, in north Bihar, on the thirteenth day of the rising moon of **Chaitra**. His father **Siddartha** was the head of the **Jnatrika** clan and his mother **Trishala** was the sister of the Lichchhavi chief **Chetaka**, whose daughter **Chellana** was wedded to **Bimbisara**. Thus Mahavira’s family was connected with the royal family of Magadha. Mahavira was married to **Yashoda**, by whom he had a daughter, **Annoja**. In the beginning, Mahavira led the life of a householder, but in the search for truth he abandoned his family at the age of **30** years and became an ascetic. For twelve long years he wandered from place to place doing penance. In the 13th year, at the age of **42**, he attained omniscience (*Kaivalya*) under a **Sal** tree near village **Jrimbhikagrama**, on the northern bank of the river **Rijupalika**. He was now a *Kevalin* (Omniscient), a *Jina* (conqueror) and *Mahavira* (the great hero). |
| What titles, sect name and death tradition attach to Mahavira? | Titles, Nigranthas and Sallekhana at Pava: Mahavira has many other titles and epithets, including **Vira**, **Sanmati** and **Nataputta**. The ancient texts refer to Mahavira as *Nataputta* (son of Natas). This referred to his clan of origin, the **Natta**. He became the head of a sect called ***Nigranthas*** (free from fetters), known in later times as Jainas or followers of the *Jina* (conqueror). For thirty years he wandered about as a religious teacher and died by self-starvation (***Sallekhana***) at **Pava** in South Bihar at the age of seventy-two. |
→ Teachings of Mahavira
→ Teachings of Mahavira
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What did Mahavira reject, and how did he treat God, varna and clothing? | Rejection of Vedas; God Lower than Jina; Varna by Karma; Nude Austerity: Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas, the Vedic rituals and the Brahmin supremacy. He advocated an austere and simple life with the ultimate aim to attain *Kaivalya* (*nirvana* or *moksha*). Mahavira recognised the existence of God but placed them lower than the *jina*. Mahavira did not condemn the *Varna* system and according to him a person is born in a high or in a low *Varna* in consequence of the sins or the virtues acquired by him in the previous birth. Though **Parshvanatha**, the predecessor of Mahavira, asked his followers to cover their body, Mahavira asked them to discard clothes altogether. This implies that he asked his followers to lead a more austere life. |
| How did Mahavira view life in objects, karma and liberation? | Consciousness in All Objects; Karma; Path to Freedom: Mahavira regarded all objects, animate or inanimate, as endowed with various degrees of consciousness. They possess life and feel pain on the infliction of injuries. He believed in *Karma* and transmigration of soul (*atma*). The attainment of freedom from worldly bonds can be obtained through right knowledge, right faith and right action. These three are considered to be the three jewels or ***triratna*** of Jainism. |
→ Three Jewels (Triratna)
→ Three Jewels (Triratna)
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What is the aim of Jain life and how do the three jewels define ethical conduct? | Liberation through Right Faith, Knowledge and Conduct: The aim of Jain life is to achieve liberation of the soul. This is done by following the Jain ethical code, or to put it simply, living rightly by following the three jewels of Jain ethics. Three jewels or *triratna* are a metaphor for describing conduct and knowledge. |
| What is Samyak darshana (right faith / perception)? | (1) Right Faith / Perception (*Samyak darshana*): This doesn’t mean believing what you’re told, but means seeing (hearing, feeling, etc.) things properly, and avoiding preconceptions and superstitions that get in the way of seeing clearly. Belief in True Prophets (like Jain Tirthankars), True Scriptures (like Jain Shastras) and True Preceptors (like Jain saints). |
| What is Samyak jnana, and why is character needed with knowledge? | (2) Right Knowledge (*Samyak jnana*): This means having an accurate and sufficient knowledge of the real universe — this requires a true knowledge of the five substances and nine truths of the universe. If our character is flawed and our conscience is not clear, knowledge alone will not help us achieve composure and happiness. A person who has right knowledge will naturally free themselves from attachment and desire, and so achieve peace of mind. |
| What is Samyak charitra (right conduct)? | (3) Right Conduct (*Samyak charitra*): This means living your life according to Jain ethical rules, to avoid doing harm to living things and freeing yourself from attachment and other impure attitudes and thoughts. Jains believe that a person who has right faith and right knowledge will be motivated and able to achieve right conduct. |
→ Five Types of Knowledge
→ Five Types of Knowledge
| Cue Words | Notes | ||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Into what five categories is Right Knowledge divided? | Mati, Srut, Avadhi, Man Prayaya and Kewalya: Right Knowledge is broadly divided into five categories:
|
→ Five Main Vows
→ Five Main Vows
| Cue Words | Notes | ||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| How did Mahavira expand Parshvanatha’s four vows into five major vows? | From Four Vows to Five; Graded Compliance for Monks and Laymen: Mahavira added the doctrine of *brahmacharya* or continence to the four vows viz. *ahimsa*, *satya*, *asateya* and *aparigraha* prescribed by Parshvanatha. Jainism encourages spiritual development through cultivation of personal wisdom and through reliance on self-control through vows. Jains accept different levels of compliance for strict followers and laymen. Followers of this religion undertake five major vows. | ||||||||||||||||||
| What are the five major vows with their ethical content? | The Five Major Vows:
|
→ Schisms in Jainism (Digambaras and Svetambaras)
→ Schisms in Jainism (Digambaras and Svetambaras)
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did the Magadha famine produce the Digambara–Svetambara split? | Twelve-Year Famine, Bhadrabahu South, Sthulabahu in Magadha: The cause of the spread of Jainism in South India is said to be the great famine that took place in Magadha **200** years after the death of Mahavira. The famine lasted for **twelve** years, and in order to protect themselves many Jaina monks went to the south under the leadership of **Bhadrabahu** (Chandragupta Maurya also accompanied him), but the rest of them stayed back in Magadha under the leadership of **Sthulabahu**. At the end of the famine they came back to Magadha, where they developed differences with the local Jainas. The changes that took place in the code of conduct of the followers of Sthulabahu led to the division of the Jainas into **Digambaras** (sky-clad or naked, southerners) and **Svetambaras** (white-clad, Magadhans). |
| What later splits renounced idol worship? | Samaiyas and Terapantis: In the later centuries, further splits took place in both Digambaras and Svetambaras. **Samaiyas** broke away from the former and **Terapantis** from the latter. Both these new groups renounced idol worship and worshipped only the scriptures. |
→ Jaina Councils
→ Jaina Councils
| Cue Words | Notes | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| What were the two Jaina councils, their venues, leaders and outcomes? | Pataliputra and Valabhi:
|
→ Jaina Church
→ Jaina Church
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How was the early Jaina Church organised from Mahavira’s ganadharas to Bhadrabahu? | Ganadharas, Theras and the Kalpasutra: Mahavira himself founded the Jaina Church. He had eleven ardent disciples called ***ganadharas*** (heads of schools), ten of whom died in Mahavira’s lifetime. Only one of them, **Arya Sudharman**, survived and became the first *thera* (pontiff) of the Jaina Church after his death. His successor, **Jambu**, held the office for **44** years. During the reign of the last Nanda of Magadha, the Jaina Church was presided by the fifth *thera*, **Sambhutavijaya**, and the sixth *thera*, **Bhadrabahu**. The fourteen *Purvas* (the old scriptures) which Mahavira himself had taught to his *ganadharas* were perfected by Sambhutavijaya and Bhadrabahu. For the history of the Jaina Church, from its inception to the fourth or third century B.C., we are indebted to the Jaina ***Kalpasutra*** of Bhadrabahu, who was the sixth *thera* after Mahavira and was a contemporary of **Chandragupta Maurya**. |
14. Jaina Philosophy
14. Jaina Philosophy
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How does Jainism divide reality into Jiva and Ajiva? | Multiple Reality: *Jivas* and *Ajivas*: Jainism is a philosophy based on the teaching of Mahavira. It takes Reality to be a multiple comprising two main kinds of objects: ***Jivas*** (souls) and the ***Ajivas*** (non-souls). The *Jivas* are infinite in number, varying in their capacity for knowledge, power and joy. The essence of *Jiva* is consciousness, power and bliss. Potentially, every *Jiva* has these qualities in infinite magnitude but actually it displays them in varying degrees, being over-powered by the material particles of *karma-pudgala* with which the souls are intermixed. Under the category of *Ajiva* come matter, space, motion (*dharma*), rest (*adharma*) and time (*kala*). Both the *Jivas* and *Ajivas* have been existing eternally. |
| Does Jainism believe in a Creator, and how is world-time structured? | Eternal World; *Utsarpini* and *Avasarpini*; Perfected Souls not Creator: The world was never created. It is eternal. Its existence is divided into an infinite number of cycles, each consisting of a period of improvement (*utsarpini*), and one of decline (*avasarpini*). We are now in the phase of decline, which is divided into six periods. Jainas do not, therefore, believe in the existence of a Creator. Instead of believing in God, they believe in the existence of perfected souls abiding in the highest region of the world with fully developed consciousness, power and bliss. |
| What is Anekantavada? | *Anekantavada* — Multi-Sided Reality: The reality has an infinite number of aspects and attributes (*ananta dharmatrnakameva tattvam*). This doctrine of Jaina philosophy is called ***Anekantavada***. |
| What is Syadvada and how does it relate to Saptabhangi and Samkhya? | *Syadvada* — Conditional Predication: The Jaina doctrine of ***Syadvada*** asserts that statements must be made with caution, keeping in view that they cannot be absolute and that opposite statements are possible and seven modes of prediction (***Saptabhangi***) are possible. The doctrine of *Syadvada* shows a close affinity with the **Samkhya** system of philosophy. |
| What is Nayavada and what five sources of knowledge does Jainism recognise? | *Nayavada* and Five Sources of Knowledge: Closely related to the *Syadvada* is ***Nayavada*** (the doctrine of viewpoints), which shows the seven ways of approaching an object of knowledge. Jainism recognizes five sources and kinds of knowledge: ***Mati***, knowledge obtained through sense-perception and inference; ***sruti***, knowledge conveyed by others through intelligible symbols; ***Avadhi***, acquired by some supernormal means; ***Manahpryaya***, gained by means of telepathy; and ***Kevala Jnaria***, knowledge of perfected souls who have acquired omniscience. |
| What path to Nirvana does Jaina practice demand? | Ahimsa, Naked Renunciation and Monastic Salvation: The Jainas lay great emphasis on *Ahimsa* (non-violence), both in theory and practice. To attain *Nirvana*, a man must abandon all trammels, including his clothes. Only by a long course of fasting, self-mortification, study and meditation, can he rid himself of *Karma*. Hence a monastic life is essential for salvation. |
15. Spread of Jainism
15. Spread of Jainism
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| Why did Jainism fail to attract the masses yet spread geographically, and in what language was it preached? | Nearness to Brahmanism; Prakrit and *Ardha-magadhi*: Since Jainism did not very clearly mark itself out from the brahmanical religion, it failed to attract the masses. Despite this, Jainism gradually spread into south and west India. The early Jainas discarded Sanskrit language mainly patronized by the brahmanas. They adopted **Prakrit** language of the common people to preach their doctrines. Their religious literature was written in ***Ardha-magadhi***. |
| Which rulers and regions patronised Jainism from Magadha to South India and Gujarat? | Royal Patrons and Regional Centres: **Udayin**, the successor of Ajatashatru of Magadha, was a devout Jaina and so were the **Nanda** rulers. **Chandragupta Maurya** became a Jaina, gave up his throne and spent the last years of his life in Karnataka as a Jaina ascetic. Jainism spread to **Kalinga** in Orissa in the fourth century B.C. and in the first century B.C. it enjoyed the patronage of the Kalinga king **Kharavela**. In the Kushana period, it flourished well at **Mathura** and was dominant in eastern India in the time of **Harsha**. During the early centuries of the Christian era, Mathura in the north and **Sravana-Belgola** in the south were great centres of Jaina activities. From the fifth century A.D. onwards many royal dynasties of South India, such as the **Gangas**, the **Kadambas**, the **Chalukyas** and the **Rashtrakutas** patronised Jainism. **Jinasena** and **Gunabhadra** composed their *Mahapurana* at the time of King **Amoghavarsha**, whose great Jaina work *Ratnamalika* became very popular. In later centuries Jainism penetrated **Malwa**, **Gujarat** and **Rajasthan**. The Chalukyan king of Solanki, **Siddharaja** (`1094–1143`), also known as **Jayasimha**, professed Jainism and his successor **Kumarapala** were great patrons of Jainism. |
→ Jaina Literature
→ Jaina Literature
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| In what language and where were Jaina texts finally compiled, and what linguistic growth did they foster? | Ardhamagadhi Compilation at Valabhi; Growth of Regional Languages: Jaina literature was written in Ardhamagadhi form of Prakrit, and the texts were finally compiled in the sixth century A.D. in Gujarat at a place called **Valabhi**, a great centre of education. The adoption of Prakrit by the Jainas helped the growth of this language and its literature. Many regional languages developed out of Prakrit languages, particularly **Shauraseni**, out of which grew the **Marathi** language. The Jainas composed the earliest important works in **Apabhramsha** and prepared its first grammar. |
| How is Svetambara canonical literature classified? | Jaina Canonical Texts (Svetambara): The sacred literature of the Svetambaras written in the Ardha-Magadhi form of Prakrit may be classified into **twelve *Angas***, **twelve *Upangas***, **ten *Prakirna***, **six *Chhedasutras***, **four *Mulasutras***. Of the 12 *Angas*, the ***Ayaramga-sutta*** (*Acharanga sutra*) deals with the rules of conduct which a Jaina monk was to follow; ***Sutrakritanga*** is mainly devoted to a refutation of the heretic doctrines; the ***Bhagavati*** is one of the most important Jaina canonical texts and it contains a comprehensive exposition of the Jaina doctrine. The 12 *Upangas* are mostly dogmatic and mythological in character. The 10 *Prakirnas* deal with various doctrinal matters and are written in verse. The six *Chhedasutras* deal with disciplinary rules for monks and nuns. The best known work is ***Kalpasutra***, attributed to **Bhadrabahu**. The *Kalpasutra* forms a part of the fourth *Chhedasutra* and consists of three sections: the first called the ***Jainacharita*** contains the biographies of the twenty-three *tirthankaras* who preceded Mahavira; the second section consists of the ***Theravali***, a list of *ganas* and their *ganadharas* (heads); the third section contains the ***Samachari*** or the rules for the Jaina monks. |
| What non-canonical genres and authors define later Jaina literature? | Non-Canonical Works — Commentaries, Stories, Charitras and Romances: Non-canonical works consist of commentaries, stories, historical works, semi-historical works, romantic works and religious lyrics. Commentaries to the canonical texts form the most significant part of non-canonical literature. The oldest of these, called ***Niryuktis***, may be traced as far back as the time of Bhadrabahu. These were later developed into elaborate ***Bhasyas*** and ***Churnis*** written in Prakrit, and ***Tikas*** and ***Vrittis*** written in Sanskrit. The important Jaina commentators were **Haribhadra** (9th A.D.), **Santisuri**, **Devendragani** and **Abhayadeva** who lived in the 11th century A.D. The ***Kathakosa*** is a rich mine of stories. It contains the Jaina version of the Nala-Damayanti episode of the *Mahabharata*. The Jainas further possess an extensive poetic literature called ***Prabandhas*** and ***Charitras***. The former give an account of historical Jaina monks and laymen while the latter narrates the stories of *tirthankaras* and mythical sages. One of the most famous works is ***Trisastisalaka Purushacharita*** (lives of 63 best men) by **Hemachandra**, which ranks as a *Mahakavya* among the Jainas. The book is divided into ten *Parvas* of which the last *parva*, ***Mahaviracharita***, deals with the life of Mahavira. From the point of view of literary history, the appendix to this book, ***Parisistaparvan*** or ***Sthaviravalicharita***, the biography of the earliest teachers of Jainism, is more valuable. Semi-historical works like ***Prabandhachitamani*** of **Merutunga** (`1306 A.D.`) and the ***Prabandhakosa*** of **Rajasekhara** (`1349 A.D.`) are important. The Digambaras styled the *Charitras* as *Puranas*, for instance ***Padmacharita*** or ***Padmapurana*** by **Vimalasuri**. **Jinasena** wrote ***Harivamsapurana*** which was completed in `783 A.D.` The Jainas possess many prose romances like the ***Samaraichchakaha*** of **Haribhadra** and ***Upamitibha-Vaprapanchakatha*** of **Siddharshi** (`906 A.D.`). |
→ Jaina Architecture and Painting
→ Jaina Architecture and Painting
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What constraints shape Jaina sculpture of Tirthankaras? | Stereotyped Tirthankara Images: The innumerable specimens of Jaina sculpture found in practically all parts of India show that the Jainas enlisted the services of sculptors from very ancient times. Their most common form of sculpture up to this day is modeling of images or statues of their Tirthankaras. But in giving shape to these figures no scope at all was given for the free play of imagination of individual sculptors as regular rules regarding the form and pose of statues of Tirthankara had been prescribed by the Jaina religion from the very beginning. Consequently, practically all Jaina images pertain to one class and therefore Jaina images from any part of the country cannot be distinguished from their style even though they belong to different ages altogether. |
| Did Jainism create a special architecture, and how do stupas and caves compare with Buddhist forms? | Adoption of Local Traditions; Stupas, Caves and Scale: It must be remembered that Jainism did not create a special architecture of its own, for wherever the Jainas went they adopted the local building traditions. For example, while in Northern India the Jainas followed the Vaisnava cult in building, in southern India they adhered to the Dravidian type. The stupas of the Jainas are indistinguishable in form from those of the Buddhists, and a Jaina curvilinear steeple is identical in outline with that of a Brahmanical temple. Jainas also like the Buddhists built several cave-temples cut in rocks from the early times. But in dimensions, the Jaina cave temples were smaller than the Buddhist ones because the Jaina religion gave prominence to individualistic and not to congregational ritual. The **Hathigumpha** caves of **Kharavela** (2nd century B.C.) and the **Khandagiri** and **Udaigiri** caves of Orissa contain early relics. **Ellora** in Maharashtra with Jaina relief works and statues represents the examples of excellent architecture and sculpture of this period. |
| What are the principal freestanding statues, early images, Mathura remains and great temples? | Gomatesvara, Lohanipura, Mathura, Ranakpur and Dilwara: The gigantic statues of **Bahubali** (called **Gomatesvara**) at **Sravana Belgola** and **Karkal** in Mysore are among the wonders of the world. The former statue, **56.5 feet** high, carved out of a granite mass, standing at the top of a hill was erected in `982 A.D.` by **Chamundaraya**, the minister of a Ganga ruler, **Rachamalla**. The image of a *tirthankara* from **Lohanipura** (Patna) dating back to the Maurya period is one of the earliest Jaina figures. Like the Buddhists, Jainas also erected stupas in honor of their saints, with their accessories of stone railings, decorated gateways, stone umbrellas, elaborate carved pillars and abundant statues. Early examples of these have been discovered in the **Kankali mound** near Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, and they are supposed to belong to the first century B.C. During the Kushana period, Mathura was a great centre of Jaina art. The Jaina temples at **Ranakpur**, and the **Dilwara** temples at **Mount Abu**, both in Rajasthan, are the products of superb Jaina craftsmanship. |
| What is the contribution of Jainas to painting? | Jaina Painting — Gujarat / Western Indian Style: Along with architecture and sculpture, the Jainas have contributed in a large measure to the development of art of painting in India. The tradition of Jaina painting is as old as Buddhist painting and innumerable Jaina paintings of exquisite quality could be found on walls, palm leaves, paper, cloth, wood, etc. It is significant to note that the Jainas possess a very extensive treasure of manuscript paintings drawn in the early Western Indian Style, sometimes called the ‘Gujarat Style’ or specifically the ‘Jaina Style’. |
16. Causes for Decline of Jainism
16. Causes for Decline of Jainism
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What seven causes explain the decline of Jainism? | Seven Causal Clusters: |
| How did lack of royal patronage and Buddhist competition hurt Jainism? | 1. Lack of Royal Patronage: Firstly, the initial tempo of royal patronage of Jainism by **Bimbisara**, **Ajatasatru**, **Udayin** and **Kharavela** was not kept up by kings and princes of later times. Rather the zeal and determination of **Asoka**, **Kanishka** and **Harsha** to spread Buddhism came to eclipse Jainism. As such, lack of sincere and determined royal patronage came to relegate Jainism. |
| How did missionary decline and severity of penance cause alienation? | 2. Lack of Efforts; 3. Severity of Jainism: There was also a decline in the missionary zeal and sincerity of the Jaina mendicants. They were no more particular in undertaking the strain of spreading Jainism in villages and towns. The traders and businessmen still remained loyal to Jainism. But they had no time to do anything for the spread of Jainism. The severity of Jainism boomeranged against it to bring about its decline. Unlike the ‘middle path’ of Buddhism, Jainism stood for severe penance, meditation, fasting and restraint etc. All these were too severe to endure. People soon became disillusioned with it. In course of time, Jainism, once adored, became alienated from the people. |
| Why was Jaina philosophy hard for the masses? | 4. Unintelligible Philosophy: Most of the Jaina philosophy was unintelligible for the masses. The concepts of *Jeeva*, *Ajeeva*, *Pudgala*, *Syadbada* etc. could not be understood properly by the people. Many could not accept the view that stone, water, tree or earth had a soul of their own. There was, thus, a gradual decline in popular faith for Jainism. This paved the way for its decline. |
| How did Digambara–Svetambara factionalism weaken Jainism? | 5. Factionalism in Jainism: Factionalism among the Jainas after the death of Mahavira was also a cause of the decline of Jainism. Some now advocated to literally follow the teachings of Mahavira, while others wanted to tone down the severity of Jainism. As such, the rift led to a division in Jain ranks. They were now divided into ‘**Digamvara**’ and ‘**Swetamvara**’ groups. The former, led by **Bhadrabahu**, gave up dress, adopted severe penance for self-purification and became indifferent to worldly life. The ‘Swetamvara’ group, led by **Sitalabahu**, wore white dress. The division weakened Jainism and as such, its spread came to be curtailed. |
| How did Buddhism and Hindu revival further eclipse Jainism? | 6. Spread of Buddhism; 7. Role of Hindu Preachers: Buddhism came as a formidable obstacle in the path of the spread of Jainism. Buddhism was simple and intelligible. There was no severity in it. Even a householder could follow it. Hinduism posed threats to Jainism. **Nimbarka**, **Ramanuja**, **Sankaracharya** etc. came to make the foundation of Hinduism more solid and stronger. Rise of Vaisnavism, Saivism and Saktism paled Jainism into comparative insignificance. Decline of Jainism, thus, became inevitable and unavoidable. The Hindu preachers put constant problem on the path of the spread of Jainism. So, it declined. |
17. Contribution of Jainism
17. Contribution of Jainism
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did Jainism enrich language and literature? | 1. Growth of Language and Literature: Jainism influenced Indian language and literature. Vardhaman Mahavir preached in ‘**Ardha Magadhi**’ language, the language of the common man. The people knowing ‘Magadhi’ and ‘**Soruaseni**’ could easily follow the preachings of Mahavir. In due course of time the Jaina Canonical texts were written in Prakrit language. Thus, the vernacular and regional languages were enriched by Jainism. Further, the Jaina texts like ‘*Anga*’, ‘*Upanga*’, ‘*Kalpasutra*’, ‘*Archarangasutra*’, ‘*Uttaradhyayanasutra*’ etc. were also written in Sanskrit. Thus, the literature also grew due to the rise of Jainism. |
| What was Mahavira’s contribution on non-violence? | 2. Principle of Non-Violence: Mahavira Jaina was the embodiment of peace. He was the preacher of non-violence. He rejected the Vedic rituals and taught to be kind and humane to the animals. Further, he emphasized that both living and non-living beings have life and they get pain. His concept of non-violence largely influenced the course of Indian history. |
| How did Jainism influence politics and state-building, especially in Karnataka? | 3. Influence on Politics: Jainism influenced Indian politics too. It cast its influence over many rulers. The great **Chandragupta Maurya** became the famous **Chadramuni** coming under the spell of Jainism. The mighty emperor **Mahameghavahana Kharavela** became an ardent devotee of Mahavira Jaina. By following the principle of non-violence the kings became kind hearted and tolerant. This was a lasting impact of Jainism on Indian politics. The Jainas also distinguished themselves in giving their unstinted support for the improvement of political and economic life in the country. The Jainas, especially in southern and western India, produced a large number of eminent and efficient monarchs, ministers, and generals and thereby contributed to maintain and improve the political importance of the people. Not only the ordinary Jainas but their *acharyas*, i.e., saints, also aided materially to create the proper political environment based on *ahimsa* culture necessary for the resuscitation of the life in the country. It is considered that due to the keen interest taken by the Jaina *Acharyas* in political affairs of the country, Jainism occupies an important place in the history of India. The Jaina ascetics were never indifferent towards the secular affairs in general. We know from the account of **Megasthenes** that, in the 4th century B.C., the *Sramanas* of Jaina ascetics who lived in the woods were frequently consulted by the kings through their messengers, regarding the cause of things. So far as **Karnataka** is concerned Jainism, throughout its course of more than one thousand years, was an example of a religion which showed that religious tenets were practiced without sacrificing the political exigencies when the question of rejuvenating life in the country was at stake. That is why in Karnataka we find that the Jaina *acharyas* ceased to be merely exponents of dogmas and turned themselves into creators of kingdoms. It has already been noted that the Jaina saints were virtually responsible for the founding of the **Ganga** kingdom in the 2nd century A.D. and the **Hoyasala** kingdom in the 11th century A.D. |
| How did Jainism foster trading communities and a healthier social order? | 4. Growth of Trading Community; 5. Creation of Healthy Society: Jainism contributed a lot for the growth of trading community. At first, Jainism became popular among the traders and merchants. It fostered brotherhood among them which gave rise to guild system in future. The merchants became rich and got a special position in the society. Owing to their wealth and fame they came closer to the ruling class. The cooperation between them brought stability in the society. Jainism went a long way in creating a healthy society. Mahavir preached against the caste system. With the end of caste system in society the grip of the higher caste over the lower caste became less. This gave rise to a healthy society which influenced the course of Indian history. |
| How did Jainism promote charity and art-architecture? | 6. Growth of Charitable Institutions; 7. Growth of Art and Architecture: Jainism helped a lot in the growth of charitable institutions. Its influence on the kings and other people was abiding. The kings created many caves for the dwelling of the sages of different castes. They also distributed foods and clothes to the people. With the gradual march of time other rich people followed this practice. They created charitable institutions to serve the people. Thus, social welfare was largely attained due to the growth of charitable institutions. Jainism helped a lot in the growth of Art and Architecture. The kings patronized Jainism. So many Jaina images and the images of Jaina Tirthankara were found in many parts of India. The image of **Bahuvalin** in **Shravanavelgola** in Karnataka (known as **Gomateswara**) is the highest Jaina image ever carved in India. The Jaina images found in **Mathura**, **Bundelkhand**, Northern Madhya Pradesh, **Orissa** and **Benares** are important Jaina Art remains in India. The cave art of **Udayagiri** in Bhubaneswar, Madhya Pradesh, **Ellora** and Maharashtra are unique examples of Jaina art. The **Dilwara** Jaina temple at Mount Abu of Rajasthan is a dream in marble. Nearly **90 percent** of Jaina temples are the gifts of single wealthy individuals and as such the Jaina temples are distinguished for elaborate details and exquisite finish. The Jain Tower in the fort of **Chittor** is another specimen of architectural engineering. Innumerable manuscripts in palm leaves were written down and some of them were painted with gold dust. These have given rise to a new school of painting known as the “**Western Indian School**”. Thus, Jainism helped in the growth of art and architecture in India. |
| How did Jainism give a new touch of life against Vedic ritualism? | 8. New Touch of Life: Jainism gave a new touch to life. It criticized the Vedic religion and the pre-dominance of Brahmanism. Thus, the people turned away their attention from the unnecessary ritualistic practices. They led a very simple and normal life. This influenced the society a lot and moulded its character in future. |
18. Non-Buddhist Ascetic Orders (Six Unorthodox Teachers)
18. Non-Buddhist Ascetic Orders (Six Unorthodox Teachers)
| Cue Words | Notes | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Were there many organised non-Jain non-Buddhist sanghas, and how many principal unorthodox teachers do Buddhist texts name? | Parivrajakas without Distinct Sanghas; Six Leaders: There were, no doubt, many individual *Parivrajakas* wandering through the country, but it is doubtful if there were many distinct *sanghas*, orders or organizations of these ascetics on the lines of the Jain and Buddhist organization. In many passages of the Buddhist scriptures we read of mainly **six** unorthodox teachers, each of whom was the leader of an important body of ascetics and lay followers. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| What did each of the six unorthodox teachers teach? | Doctrines of the Six Teachers:
|
19. Rise of Magadha — Factors of Imperial Supremacy
19. Rise of Magadha — Factors of Imperial Supremacy
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did Magadha emerge from the sixteen Mahajanapadas as the paramount power of northern India? | Four-Power Contest and First Dynastic Unification: There were initially sixteen *Maha-Janapadas*; Magadha formed one of them. In course of time small or weak kingdoms either submitted to stronger rulers or got eliminated. Finally in the 6th century B.C. only four major kingdoms survived — **Avanti, Vatsa, Kosala and Magadha** — and out of these four Magadha emerged most powerful. The rise of Magadha imperialism is unique in Indian history: the political history of India from the earliest times till the present day is an endless story of struggle between the forces of centralisation and decentralisation. In the sixth century B.C., India presented the chronic symptom of disintegration; Aryan India in the North was divided into sixteen great kingdoms and a number of republican, autonomous states. Out of the four powerful kingdoms, Magadha rose into prominence by aggrandising upon other weaker states. They entered into a four-power conflict for imperial supremacy which ended in the ultimate victory of Magadha over them. It is the first successful attempt for imperial and dynastic unification of India in the period of recorded history. The factors that contributed to the rise of Magadha Empire were both internal and external. Collectivist historians emphasise that situation and circumstances make a leader in history and that it is not leaders who create history; but in reality actors and factors collaborate in the creation of historical changes. |
→ Geographical Factors
→ Geographical Factors
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What geographical advantages made Magadha impregnable and expansionist? | Mainland Route, *Jaladurga* and Five Hills: Magadha lay on the main land route connecting Eastern India with the West and could easily control the trade between the two regions of the country. Capitals were at strategic positions: **Rajgir** was surrounded by **5 hills** and **Pataliputra** was surrounded by **Ganga, Gandak, Son and Ghagra** rivers — i.e. it was a true *Jaladurga* (water fort). Magadha Empire was encircled by the Ganges, the Son and the Champa rivers on the three sides and made it impregnable for the enemy. Her old capital **Rajgriha** was strategically situated as it was surrounded on all sides by hills and cyclopean stone walls. Magadha’s new capital Pataliputra was still more strategically invincible than Rajgriha; it was situated near the confluence of the Ganges and the Son, and it was easier to control the course of the Ganges from the city of Pataliputra. Rivers also made military movements easier for Magadha. These geographical advantages of Magadha helped her to be aggressive against her neighbours while baffled by the impregnability of Magadha. Due to availability of elephants, Magadha used them in war against the enemy. |
→ Economic Factors
→ Economic Factors
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did population, alluvial fertility and surplus production underwrite Magadhan power? | Solvency, Fertile Gangetic Alluvium and Multiple Crops: One of the main factors behind the rise of Magadhan power was her economic solvency and growing prosperity. Magadha had a vast population which could be employed in agriculture, mining and for manning her army. The Sudras and the non-Aryans could be employed in clearing up the forest and reclaiming surplus land for farming. The surplus population could easily live on the yield of the surplus land. The Magadhan lands were very fertile due to its location between the Ganges and the Son. In the 4th century B.C. the Magadhan lands yielded multiple crops round the year. People of Magadhan Empire became prosperous due to fertility of the land and the government became automatically rich and powerful. |
→ Mineral Resources
→ Mineral Resources
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| Why were iron and copper decisive for Magadha’s military and agrarian edge? | Rajgir Iron, Copper and Avanti as Competitor: The mineral resources of Magadha were other sources of her power and prosperity. With the dawn of the Iron Age, iron became an important metal for making implements, plough shears and weapons of war. Magadha had abundant iron supply from **Rajgir mines**. Besides Magadha had copper mines. Magadha could equip her vast army with iron weapons; she could sell surplus iron to other states. Deep ploughing with heavy iron plough was possible due to easy supply of iron. Iron mines were also available to **Avanti**, on account of which Avanti proved to be the most serious competitor of Magadha for the supremacy of north India. |
→ Role of Trade and Significance of the Ganges
→ Role of Trade and Significance of the Ganges
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did control of the Ganges, Champa and Kasi integrate Magadhan trade and imperialism? | River Highways, Port of Champa and Pan-Gangetic Hegemony: Magadha was situated on the land route connecting Eastern India with the west; the trade flowing over this route passed through Magadha. The river Ganges which flowed through the heart of Magadha was the high route of trade in Northern India. Magadha was linked up to parts of Northern India right up to **Kasi** or **Baranasi** by the Ganga route and from **Prayag** or **Allahabad** — the place of confluence of Ganga and Yamuna — Magadha could send her merchandise along the Yamuna route up to the Delhi region. Downwards from Magadha the open sea could be reached by the Ganga route. The Son and the Champa flowed along the Magadhan frontier. In ancient times river routes served as highway of commerce; Magadha could control the North Indian trade through her mastery over the Ganges. When **Bimbisara** conquered Anga kingdom, its flourishing port of **Champa** was annexed to Magadha. Champa was a famous river port from which ocean (Bay of Bengal) going vessels laden with merchandise sailed to different countries of South-East Asia, Ceylon and South India. The rise of Magadhan Kingdom was linked up with the establishment of her supremacy over the Ganges. After annexation of Champa, Magadha Empire turned to establish her supremacy over the upper Gangetic region. **Bimbisara** and **Ajatsatru** defeated Kosala and annexed **Kasi**, a famous river port and emporium. The mastery over Kasi gave Magadha the opportunity to make economic penetration in Kosala kingdom or U.P. Virtually the southern side of the Ganges now came under Magadhan hegemony, where she started ceaseless economic penetration. Magadha turned her gaze to the northern side of the Ganges — **Vaisali** and **Lichchavi** countries. The fertile tracts of this region became targets of Magadhan imperialism. The conquest of Vaisali and Lichchavi countries gave Magadha supreme mastery over the Gangetic valley and she became virtually invincible. Magadha launched the programme of a pan-Indian empire depending on the strength of her hold in the Gangetic valley. |
→ Cultural Factors
→ Cultural Factors
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did Aryan–non-Aryan cultural interaction and Eastern sramana thought empower Magadha? | Meeting Ground of Cultures and Political Parallel to Mahavira–Buddha: Culturally, the rise of Magadha can be explained on the ground that Magadha was the meeting ground of two opposite cultures. The Aryan culture lost its original virility when it reached Magadha and the lingering traces of non-Aryan culture of Eastern India got mixed up with the Aryan culture. This interaction of two cultures gave new power and spirit to Magadha Empire. In the sphere of thought and philosophy Eastern India made her mark in the teaching of **Mahavira** and **Buddha**. The revolution inaugurated by them in the sphere of thought was supplemented by Magadha in the political field by the emergence of Magadhan imperialism and the Magadhan bid to establish a pan-Indian empire. |
→ Political Factors
→ Political Factors
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What political conditions and rulers enabled Magadhan imperial unification? | Atomisation of North India and Chain of Able Monarchs: Politically, the fulfilment of Magadhan dream of imperial unification of India under Magadhan banner was possible due to the political atomisation of Northern India in the 6th century B.C. The rivalry among big monarchies prevented their alliance against Magadha. None but the republican states under **Vriji** made common alliances against Magadha. The geographical and natural barriers like the rivers, mountains and jungles prevented the fostering of a united resistance movement against Magadha. An unbroken chain of very able and extraordinary monarchs ascended the Magadhan throne. Dynastic monarchy is generally cursed with incompetent rulers, but in that particular period of time Magadha was exception to this rule. The credit for the rise of Magadha Empire goes to the competent rulers of Magadha Kingdom. **Shishunaga, Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Mahapadma** and **Chandragupta** were exceptionally able kings. They were fortunate in having great ministers and diplomats like **Vassakara, Kautilya** and **Radha Gupta** without whose efforts Magadhan ascendancy would have suffered. |
→ Danger of Foreign Invasions
→ Danger of Foreign Invasions
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did external invasion threats prepare India to submit to Magadhan hegemony? | Achaemenian and Macedonian Pressure as Unifying Consciousness: Externally, the threat of foreign invasions like that of the **Achaemenians** in the 6th century B.C., that of the **Macedonians** in the 4th century B.C. and the subsequent infiltration of foreign races boldly put forward the question that without a central paramount government on the subcontinent, it was impossible to defend it from foreign invasions. Such a consciousness certainly worked behind the rise of Magadhan imperialism and prepared the country to submit to Magadhan hegemony. |
20. Magadha Dynasties — Haryanka, Shishunaga and Nanda
20. Magadha Dynasties — Haryanka, Shishunaga and Nanda
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What sequence of dynasties took Magadha from regional power to pre-Mauryan empire? | Dynastic Arc from Haryanka to Nanda: The Magadhan political sequence runs through the **Haryanka** dynasty (c. `600–413 B.C.`), the **Shishunaga** dynasty, and the **Nanda** dynasty (`345–321 B.C.`), each extending Magadhan power until Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya overthrew the last Nanda. According to tradition, the Haryanka dynasty founded the Magadha Empire in `600 B.C.`, whose capital was **Rajagriha**, later **Pataliputra**, near present-day Patna. This dynasty lasted until `424 B.C.`, when it was overthrown by the Shishunaga dynasty. |
→ Haryanka Dynasty — Bimbisara
→ Haryanka Dynasty — Bimbisara
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did Bimbisara build Magadhan foundations through conquest, marriage and religious patronage? | Bimbisara (`543–491 B.C.`) — Expansion, Alliances and Dual Claim: **Bimbisara** was a King, and later Emperor, of the Magadha empire. His expansion of the kingdom, especially his annexation of the kingdom of **Anga** to the east, is considered to have laid the foundations for the later expansion of the Maurya Empire. Bimbisara built the city of **Rajagriha**, famous in Buddhist writings. According to Buddhist scriptures, King Bimbisara met the Buddha for the first time prior to the Buddha’s enlightenment, and later became an important disciple that featured prominently in certain Buddhist suttas. He is recorded to have attained *sotapannahood*, a degree of enlightenment in Buddhist teachings. Jain scriptures, on the other hand, described Bimbisara as a disciple of **Mahavira** who frequently sought his teachings. As per Jain texts, he is referred to as **King Shrenika** of Rajgriha (being the possessor of a large army). Bimbisara sent **Jivaka** to Ujjain for medical treatment of **King Pradyota**, the king of Avanti. Bimbisara used marriage alliances to strengthen his position. His first wife was **Kosala Devi**, the sister of **Prasenjit** (king of Kosala). His bride brought him **Kashi** as dowry. Kashi was useful for trade. This marriage also ended the hostility between Magadha and Kosala and gave him a free hand in dealing with the other states. Bimbisara’s second wife, **Chellana**, was a Lichchhavi princess from Vaishali. **Mahavira** was related to Queen Chellana who was daughter of Mahavira’s uncle (**King Chetaka**). Bimbisara’s third wife, **Kshema**, was a daughter of the chief of the **Madra** clan of Punjab. Bimbisara was imprisoned by his son **Ajatashatru** in the prison of Rajgriha to ascend the throne of the kingdom of Magadha. |
→ Haryanka Dynasty — Ajatashatru
→ Haryanka Dynasty — Ajatashatru
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What is the dual Jaina–Buddhist tradition of Ajatashatru’s birth and how did he fortify Magadha? | Ajatashatru (`491–460 B.C.`) — Parentage, Patali Grama and War Engines: According to Jaina tradition (“*Nirayavalika Sutta*” of Jaina Aagams), Ajatasatru was born to king Bimbisara and Queen **Chelna**; Buddhist tradition (*Digha Nikaya Atthakatha*) records Ajatasatru being born to King Bimbisara and queen **Kosala Devi**. Both the queens were called “**Vaidehi**” in both the traditions. Thus Ajatasatru is called *Vaidehi putra* in the inscription at Mathura museum. Ajatasatru, with the help of his two ministers **Sunidha** and **Vassakara**, built a fort near the banks of the river Ganges to strengthen the defence of Magadha (for war with Vaishali and to protect it from an invasion led by **Pradyota** of Avanti) and named it **Patali Grama** (village). Later it developed into a city, which soon became popular as **Pataliputra**, now known as Patna. Ajatsatru reorganised and strengthened his army and equipped it with new weapons — a war engine which was used to throw stone like catapults. He also used a chariot to which a mace was attached for mass killing. He followed the policy of conquest and expansion. |
| How did Ajatashatru conquer the Vajji/Lichchhavi confederacy through Vassakara’s strategy? | War with Vaishali — Seven Reasons and Spy Split: He fought a terrible war against the **Vajjis/Lichhavis** and conquered the once considered invincible democratic Vaishali Republic. His opposition of the tribal confederacy of the Vajjis, headed by Lichchhavis of Vaishali, was part of general monarchical antagonism against tribal polities. The immediate pretext of war was that the traders complained of the double imports collected by Magadhan king and Lichchhavis king, both claiming full control of Ganga. The first step was fortifying Pataliputra. According to Buddhist tradition (Jaina tradition also mentions attack on Vaishali), it is almost impossible to fight against the whole confederacy of Vaisali. Ajatashatru sent his chief minister **Vassakara** to Lord Buddha to ask him the purpose of Vaisali being invincible, to which Lord Buddha gave **seven reasons** which included: Vajjis being punctual to the meetings; their disciplined behaviour; their respect for elders; respect for women; they do not marry their daughters forcefully; they give spiritual protection to the Arhats (who has attained nirvana); and the main reason was the *Chaityas* (altar) inside the town. Thus, with the help of his minister Vassakara, Ajatasatru managed to split the Vajjis and also broke the chaityas inside. Ajatasatru attacked the town and conquered it. There is also mention of **Amrapali**, a *nagarvadhu* (royal courtesan) of the republic of Vaishali. After defeating the king, Ajatasatru was in a relationship with Amrapali. Later, following the Buddha’s teachings she became an *arahant*. |
| What were Ajatashatru’s results against Kosala and his religious position? | Kosala, Thirty-Six Republics, Dual Faith and First Council: He defeated his neighbours including the king of Kosala; his brothers, when at odds with him, went to Kashi (of “Kasi-Kosala”), which had been given to Bimbisara as dowry. This led to a war between Magadha and Kosala. Ajatshatru occupied Kashi and captured the smaller kingdoms. After conquering Vaisali, Kasi and Kosala, Ajatasatru conquered **36 republican states** surrounding his kingdom and firmly established the predominance of Magadha. **King Pradyota** of Avanti was powerful at that time and Ajatashatru could not conquer it. He was contemporary to **Mahavira** (`540 BCE–468 BCE`) and **Buddha** (`563 BCE–483 BCE`). Ajatasatru enjoys a respectable position in both Jaina and Buddhist traditions. Both claim him as a close follower. The Jaina claim appears to be well founded. Whereas Ajatasatru met Buddha only once, he had several meetings with Mahavira. Buddha spent only **5** monsoon camps in Rajgriha and none in Champa, Ajatasatru’s capital, while Mahavira spent **14** monsoon camps in Rajgriha and **3** in Champa. Maybe he later embraced Buddhism. The **first Buddhist Council** was held soon after the *mahaparinirvana* of the Buddha, dated by the majority of recent scholars around `400 BCE`, under the patronage of king Ajatasatru with the monk **Mahakasyapa** presiding, at **Sattapanni caves** Rajgriha. Its objective was to preserve the Buddha’s sayings (*suttas*) and the monastic discipline or rules (*Vinaya*). The *Suttas* were recited by **Ananda**, and the *Vinaya* was recited by **Upali**. According to Buddhist texts the four kings who ruled Magadha after Ajatashatru all killed their fathers. |
→ Haryanka Dynasty — Udayin and Nagadasaka
→ Haryanka Dynasty — Udayin and Nagadasaka
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| Who succeeded Ajatashatru and who was the last Haryanka king? | Udayabhadra / Udayin (`460–444 B.C.`) and Nagadasaka: The *Mahavamsa* text tells that **Udayabhadra** eventually succeeded his father, Ajatashatru, moving the capital of the Magadha kingdom to **Pataliputra** from Rajgriha. **Nagadasaka** was last king of Haryanka dynasty. |
→ Shishunaga Dynasty
→ Shishunaga Dynasty
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did Shishunaga and Kalashoka reshape Magadhan geography and Buddhist institutions? | Shishunaga, Avanti Conquest and Second Buddhist Council: **Shishunaga**, the founder of this dynasty, was initially an *amatya* (minister) of the last Haryanka dynasty ruler Nagadasaka and ascended to the throne after a popular rebellion in `413 BCE`. He temporarily shifted his capital to **Vaishali**. He defeated **Avanti** and brought to end the **100 years old rivalry**. (Avanti became part of the Magadha empire during the rule of the Shaishunaga and the Nanda dynasties. During the Mauryan dynasty rule, Avanti became the *Avantiraṭṭha* or the western province of the empire, with its capital at **Ujjayini**.) According to the Puranas, Shishunaga was succeeded by his son **Kakavarna** and according to the Sinhala chronicles by his son **Kalashoka** (both may be the same). Two most significant events of his reign are the **Second Buddhist council** at Vaishali in `383 B.C.` and the final transfer of capital to **Pataliputra** from Vaishali. **Nandivardhana** or **Mahanandin** was probably the last ruler of this dynasty. This dynasty was succeeded by the Nanda dynasty in c. `345 BCE`. |
→ Nanda Dynasty
→ Nanda Dynasty
| Cue Words | Notes | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Who was Mahapadma Nanda and what titles and conquests define him? | Mahapadma Nanda — *Ekrat* and “Destroyer of all the Kshatriyas”: The Nandas who usurped the throne of the Shishunaga dynasty were thought to be of low origin with some sources stating that the dynasty’s founder, **Mahapadma**, was the son of a Shudra mother. First Nanda King Mahapadma Nanda, who has been described in the Puranas as “the destroyer of all the Kshatriyas”, defeated many other kingdoms, including the **Panchalas, Kasis, Haihayas, Kalingas, Asmakas, Kurus, Maithilas, Surasenas** etc. He is known as ***Ekrat*** (Sole king who destroyed others). He conquered **Kalinga** and brought image of **Jina** with him. **Hathigumpha** inscription of **Kharvela** (of Kalinga) mentions conquest of Kalinga by Nanda. He expanded his territory south of the Vindhya range, into the Deccan plateau. The Nandas are sometimes described as the first empire builders in the recorded history of India. They inherited the large kingdom of Magadha and wished to extend it to yet more distant frontiers. To this purpose they built up a vast army. | |||||||||||||||
| How large was the Nanda army according to classical writers, and how did the dynasty end? | Army Strength, Wealth, Dhana Nanda and Overthrow:
However, the Nandas never had the opportunity to see their army up against Alexander, who invaded India at the time of Dhana Nanda, since Alexander had to confine his campaign to the plains of Punjab, for his forces, frightened by the prospect of facing a formidable foe, mutinied at the Hyphasis River (the modern Beas River) refusing to march any further. [DIAGRAM NEEDED HERE: map of Asia in 323 B.C. showing borders of the Nanda Empire in relation to Alexander’s Empire and neighbours] The Nandas were also renowned for their immense wealth. They undertook irrigation projects and invented standardised measures for trade across their empire, and they ruled with the assistance of many ministers. The Nanda Dynasty was also mentioned in the ancient Sangam literature of the Tamil people. The famous Tamil poet Mamulanar of the Sangam literature described the capital city Pataliputra of the Nanda Dynasty and the wealth and treasure that was accumulated by the great Nanda rulers. Last king of Nanda dynasty was Dhana Nanda ( |
21. Iranian / Achaemenid Invasion of India (550–515 B.C.)
21. Iranian / Achaemenid Invasion of India (550–515 B.C.)
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did Cyrus and Darius I establish Persian rule over north-western India? | Cyrus, Darius I and the Twentieth Satrapy: The founder of the Achaemenid Empire in Persia, **Cyrus**, led some campaigns to the east of Iran between `558` and `530 B.C.` In course of these campaigns he invaded the Indian borderland and captured the **Gandhara** region. In the reign of **Darius I** (`522–486 B.C.`), the Persians made some real advance in India. He invaded India and occupied the territories in the North-Western Frontier Province, Sind and Punjab in `516 B.C.` These parts remained with the Iranian Empire till Alexander’s invasion of India. The **Bahistan Inscription** mentions Gandhara as a province of his empire which Darius inherited from Cyrus. This is further confirmed by the **Susa Palace Inscription** of Darius which mentions that teak was brought from Gandhara for the construction of the palace of the Emperor. (Gandhara means modern Peshawar and Rawalpindi of Pakistan.) According to **Herodotus**, Gandhara formed the **twentieth satrapy** of the empire of Darius paying a tribute of **360 talents of gold dust**. (This gold was probably collected from the beds of the upper Indus and from the gold mines of Dardistan.) It was the most fertile and populous province of the Achaemenian Empire. Herodotus has also recorded that Darius sent a naval expedition probably in `517 B.C.` to explore the Indus basin. |
| What was the extent of Darius’s Indian dominion, and how did Xerxes use Indian troops? | West Punjab–Lower Indus, Xerxes and Fall by `330 B.C.`: The extent of the Persian Empire in India under Darius was not merely confined to Gandhara alone but extended further towards the Indus as well. The Persian Empire in India reached its farthest limit under Darius. The extent of the Indian dominion of Darius included the territories inherited from his predecessors and those he conquered in India. The territories of **West Punjab and Lower Indus valley** were under Persian rulers. **Xerxes**, the successor of Darius I, kept his flag flying over the Indian kingdom which he had inherited from Darius, but he failed to make any forward movement in India due to his commitments in Greece. Herodotus states that Xerxes requisitioned large number of troops including infantry and cavalry from India for invasion of Greece. The defeat suffered by Xerxes in Greece led to decline of Persian power in India. However, the Achaemenid rule over India continued up to `330 B.C.` In that year **Darius III**, the last of the Achaemenid rulers, summoned Indian troops to fight against **Alexander the Great**. With the fall of the Persian power under the impact of the invasion of Alexander the Great, the Persian hold over India was lost. |
→ Iranian Influence on India
→ Iranian Influence on India
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What political lessons and administrative models did Persian contact leave in India? | Political Impact and the Satrapa Model: Iranian contacts with India lasted for about two centuries (`516` to `326 B.C.`). The Persian invasion and the hold of the Persians in the north-western frontier regions of India did not affect Indian politics in any significant way. It only exposed the weakness of the Indian defence in that region and paved the way for the conquest of Alexander. The Iranians were followed by the **Greeks, the Sakas, the Kushans and the Huns**. However, the *satrapa* system of administration introduced by the Persians in their Indian provinces served as a model to later dynasties especially the **Sakas** and the **Kushanas**. India learnt the necessity of a strong and united empire to repel the foreign invasions. It was for the first time that the small, scattered and mutually quarreling states of India realised how essential it was to join hands together to meet the common enemy. |
| How did Persian contact stimulate trade, settlement, art, *Kharosthi* and coinage? | Trade, Settlement, Art, *Kharosthi*, Culture and Coinage: Though the Persian invasion did not affect India politically to a great extent, the contact between the Indians and the Persians continued even after the end of the Achaemenian Empire. These contacts between Persia and India through both the sea and the land led to the establishment of trade relations between the two countries. The Persian rulers did much to promote geographical exploration and promote trade and commerce. The exploration of the Indus and the Arabian Sea by **Scylax** opened a new water route. When the western and north-western India formed parts of the Persian Empire which extended up to Asia Minor in the west, Indian trade naturally got a fresh impetus. Indian ivory and teak were popular in the Persian markets; Darius used them in the construction of his palace. Indian traders and merchants now reached distant places in the vast Persian Empire to dispose of their goods. Similarly, the Persian goods began to flow smoothly into India. A large number of foreigners — Greek, Persians, Turks etc. — settled down in the North-Western parts of India. With the passage of time they completely absorbed among the Indians. According to **Megasthenes**, the Greek Ambassador at the court of Chandragupta, the Mauryan ruler adopted certain Persian ceremonies and rituals. The Mauryan art was influenced by the Persian art to some extent. Traces of the Persian influence can be seen in the Mauryan sculptures and in the Ashokan pillars. The polish of the Mauryan pillars manifests the Persian influence. The Persian masonry had this characteristic of high polish. Ashokan pillars were influenced by Persian pillars. Ashoka followed the Iranian custom of preaching ideals by inscribing them on the stone pillars. The architecture of the period of Ashoka was completely influenced by Persian architecture. The Aramaic form of writing which the Persians introduced in the north-western India after their conquest gradually developed into the ***Kharoshti*** script. It was written from **right to left**. All the Ashokan rock inscriptions in the north-west India were engraved in the *Kharoshti* script. The idea of inscribing ethical exhortations on rocks in the form of royal proclamations might have been borrowed from Persia. Certain resemblances have been discovered between the Achaemenid inscriptions and those of Ashoka. They both have the same style, especially in the construction of the opening sentence. Indian scholars and philosophers went to Persia and exchanged their views freely with the intellectuals of that country. This contact brought about a great change in the outlook of the people and brought the people closer. Fusion of Iranian/Persian features in the Mauryan art is noted, as is impact of Buddhism on the Zoroastrian religion of ancient Persia. Even before the invasion of Alexander, the Persians became catalysts between the Indian and Greek cultures. The Greek philosophers came in contact with Indian philosophy long before the invasion of Alexander. The Persian silver coins were in circulation in India. This affected Indian coinage. The Persian coins were known for their refined minting and elegant looks. The Indian rulers adopted similar techniques to mint their coins on the Persian model. |
→ Comparison of Maurya Columns and Achaemenian Pillars
→ Comparison of Maurya Columns and Achaemenian Pillars
| Cue Words | Notes | |||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Where do Mauryan and Achaemenian pillars converge and diverge? | Similarities and Differences — Bell Capital and Free-Standing Form:
|
22. Macedonian Invasion of India — Alexander (326 B.C.)
22. Macedonian Invasion of India — Alexander (326 B.C.)
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| Why is Alexander’s invasion known mainly from Greek sources, and who was Alexander? | Alexander, Silence of Indian Literature and Greek–Numismatic Corroboration: **Alexander** was born in `356 B.C.` in Macedonia, a kingdom of Greece. **Philip**, his father, was the ruler of Macedon. After the death of his father, Alexander ascended the throne at the age of twenty only. Within a few years following the accession, he conquered Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor and Persia. The Alexander’s invasion of India is an important event in the history of ancient India. But it created scarcely any impression in Indian mind. The veracity of the statement is established by the fact that the event is not referred to in any branch of ancient Indian literature. It is only from the Greek sources that we come to know of the events relating to Alexander’s invasion in India. The Greek accounts have been corroborated by the archaeological evidences (especially numismatic evidences). |
→ India on the Eve of Alexander’s Invasion (326 B.C.)
→ India on the Eve of Alexander’s Invasion (326 B.C.)
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What political map of north-west India confronted Alexander? | Political Condition — Fragmented Republics and Monarchies: At that time, there was not any mighty empire in India and the whole country was divided into several small republics and monarchical states which were constantly fighting with one another. Across the Beas River the strong Magadhan Empire had neither the will or time to intervene in the political changes occurring in the states lying to the west. There were probably four hill-tribes to the west of the Indus. The kingdom of **Taxila** lay between the river Indus and Jhelum; it was ruled by **Ambhi** who was the sworn enemy of his neighbouring ruler **Porus**. Porus ruled over the territory which lay between the Jhelum and the Chenab. He maintained a strong army which fought well against Alexander. The territory between the Ravi and the Chenab was ruled by the **Younger Porus**, who was a relative of Porus, and tribesmen of the **Glausai** Tribe who had their own separate areas. The territory between the Ravi and the Beas Rivers was ruled by several independent tribes. To the east of the Beas lay the mighty empire of Magadha which was ruled by the **Nandas** who had a huge powerful army; its capital city was at **Patliputra**. In the Southern parts of the Punjab, which lay on Alexander’s route when he was returning to Greece, were the warlike tribal republics of **Sivi, Kshudrakas and Malla**, etc. They made Alexander’s retreat a difficult affair. There were several independent tribes in the Indus Valley. |
| What social, economic and religious conditions do Greek accounts report on the eve of invasion? | Society, Economy and Religion: People led a simple life. Thefts were uncommon. However, the customs of *Sati*, polygamy and slavery were prevalent. In the light of the Greek accounts, that some of the people were forced to sell their daughters because of poverty, we can conclude that the moral decay had set in the society. However, the Indians had made much progress in the field of art, architecture, literature and education. Agriculture, trade and various crafts were practiced by the people. The trade was developed. The Indian traders travelled to far off countries where they sold woollen blankets, hides, horses, elephants and precious stones. The traders were prosperous and the trade was controlled by the state. Coins were also used as the medium of exchange. The practice of worshipping the images had been firmly established. The rivers (especially the Ganga) and the trees were also worshipped. The sacred trees were never cut or injured. The hold of Brahmanism was supreme though Buddhism and Jainism were also gaining ground. The Brahmanas were held in high esteem even by the rulers. |
→ Why Alexander Invaded India
→ Why Alexander Invaded India
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What proximate causes drove Alexander’s Indian campaign? | Persian Remainder, Wealth, Curiosity and Rivalry: Alexander the Great decided to launch an invasion of India after inflicting the finishing blow on Emperor **Darius III** of Persia. Historical writers have given detailed accounts of conquests of Alexander the Great in India, but they did not tell us about the reasons that provoked Alexander to invade India. The proximate causes of the invasion of India by Alexander may be the following: Alexander had conquered all the provinces of the Persian Empire except the Indian satrapy of the Persian emperor. The easy conquest of Persia and plunder of Persian wealth and treasures increased the desire of Alexander to invade India. The Indian satrapy paid to the Persian emperor a tribute of **360 talents of gold dust**. Alexander was attracted by the wealth and prosperity of India. The Indian soldiers who fought under Xerxes in Greece had awakened great interest among Greeks about India. Curiosity, love of adventure and passion for conquest inspired Alexander to march to India. An embassy from the king had sought Alexander’s help against the neighbouring king Porus. Alexander became aware of internal rivalry among the Indian rulers. Alexander wanted to exceed the heroism shown by the mythical heroes like **Heracles**. The geographers in Greek were puzzled for a long time about the extent of the Ocean. One of the objects of Alexander’s campaign in India was to solve the problem by fixing the extent of the Ocean. |
→ Conquest of Alexander in India
→ Conquest of Alexander in India
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| Trace Alexander’s Indian campaign from Hindukush to Hydaspes and Beas mutiny. | Pushkalavati, Taxila, Battle of Hydaspes and Return from Beas: The Indian campaign of Alexander the Great began in `326 B.C.` After conquering the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, the Macedonian king Alexander launched a campaign into the northwestern Indian subcontinent (Pakistan). In the spring of `327 B.C.` Alexander the Great decided to cross the **Hindkush** mountain range and move forward for conquests in India. He was accompanied by a large army. The army of Alexander marched towards the Indus. The Macedonian troops with their glittering spears and shining helmets caused terror among the local tribes. They offered almost no resistance till the invaders reached the Indus. The first ruler to oppose them was the King of **Pushkalavati**. He resisted the attack of the Macedonians for several days and died a hero’s death in the defence of his capital. The fort was taken by the Macedonians. Conquering resistances, Alexander reached the Indus. In `326 B.C.`, Alexander had crossed Indus. **Ambhi**, the king of Taxila, entered into a treaty with Alexander. King Ambhi came forward to greet him. The gate of the city of Taxila was thrown open to the Macedonians. The surrender of Ambhi opened the gates of Punjab to the Macedonians. Perhaps, Ambhi did this to take revenge against his neighbour king Porus. King Porus was not ready to surrender. The King of Paurava kingdom, Porus, was prepared to meet the army of Alexander. The kingdom was situated between Jhelum and Chenab river. The historic battle between Porus and Alexander was fought on the bank of Jhelum river in `326 B.C.` (**Battle of Hydaspes**). The army of King Porus was huge and Alexander carefully laid his plans. Porus bravely fought against Alexander. He received several wounds on his body. After a tough battle the army of King Porus was defeated. King Porus surrendered at last. Alexander was highly impressed with the bravery of King Porus and appointed him as a satrap of not only his own Kingdom but also granted him additional territories. Alexander conquered other several territories near River Indus. After the great victory in the Battle of Hydaspes, Alexander had a sweeping march up to the Beas. The Magadha Empire was on the east of the empire of Porus. The king of the Magadha Empire was **Dhana Nanda**. He was the son of Mahapadma Nanda and last ruler of Nanda Dynasty. The Magadha army under Nanda Empire was vast. The infantry size of Nanda army was of more than two lakh people. Further, it had large number of elephants, chariots and cavalry. The army of Alexander was exhausted. They could not gather the courage to meet such large army of Magadha. After reaching the river Beas, the army of Alexander refused to proceed further in spite of his appeals. Alexander, using the incorrect maps of the Greeks, thought that the world ended a mere 1,000 km away, at the edge of India. He therefore spoke to his army and tried to persuade them to march further into India but his general pleaded with him to change his opinion and return. Alexander, seeing the unwillingness of his men agreed and turned back. He marched back to the Jhelum and there collected a fleet of boats and sailed down the Jhelum (Hydaspes) and the lower Indus. The rest of his army marched along both the banks of the river. |
| What happened during Alexander’s return through the lower Indus and Sind? | Malli, Sind and Death at Babylon (`323 B.C.`): In course of this voyage towards the Lower Indus, Alexander faced fierce opposition from the republican tribes of the region. There was heavy loss to Alexander’s army. However, Alexander conquered the country. His army conquered the **Malli** clans (in modern day Multan). Alexander sailed further down the river receiving submission of other republican tribes in the region. The rulers of **Sind** strongly resisted the Macedonian army but were defeated. The region of Sind came under the control of Alexander. The Macedonian army returned to Persia in `324 B.C.` Alexander left some of his generals at the conquered territories who ruled the region for some years. While Alexander was encamping at **Babylon**, he succumbed to a fatal attack of fever in `323 B.C.` |
→ Ineffectiveness of Alexander’s Invasion
→ Ineffectiveness of Alexander’s Invasion
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| Why is Alexander’s invasion often judged an unimportant event for Indian civilisation? | Five Reasons for Limited Direct Impact: Alexander’s invasion was an unimportant event in the History of India and as such it did not leave any permanent mark on its civilisation due to several reasons: (1) **His Untimely Death** — Alexander had an ambition to annex his Indian conquests to his Greek empire. That is why he left several of his governors and a large part of his army back in India. But his untimely death put to an end all his plans. (2) **Short Stay in India** — Alexander stayed in India for a short period of **19 months**. Almost all this time, he spent in fighting battles. In this atmosphere of war and distrust neither the Greeks nor the Indians could have an open heart to understand each other. In such a condition, how could the Greek civilisation influence the civilisation of India. (3) **Merely a Border Invasion** — Alexander could not penetrate deep into the country and thus, his invasion remained more or less like a border raid. There was, therefore, remote possibility of its influencing the Indian civilisation. (4) **The Indian Civilisation was already well-developed** — The Indian civilisation was already well-developed and the Indian people did not lag behind in any field than any other people in the world. They, therefore found nothing worth-while that they could learn from the Greek invaders. (5) **Founding of the Mauryan Dynasty** — No sooner did Alexander turn his back, all his Indian territories were occupied by **Chandragupta Maurya** and thus even the last vestiges of the Greek invasion were obliterated. |
→ Consequences of Alexander’s Invasion
→ Consequences of Alexander’s Invasion
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What political consequences followed Alexander’s campaign in India? | Political Impact — Unity Lesson and Path for Mauryas: Though Alexander failed to plant his Greek civilisation in India, nor could his invasion produce any direct consequences of permanent nature, yet his invasion was not a total failure. It cannot be called a ‘non-event’ in the Indian history. It produced several indirect consequences. Alexander’s invasion of India carried both a political lesson and a political result. The lesson was that divided into small kingdoms, republics and tribal units, the North-West India suffered badly from hands of the foreign invaders. Unity and not the disunity became the need of the time. The political result of the invasion was noteworthy. Alexander destroyed the power of the many existing states and wiped out the independent existence of some of them. When soon after his departure, the process of building a powerful Indian empire began, the states of the North-West were easily conquered and they formed a part of that empire. Alexander, in fact, made the work of **Chandragupta Maurya** simpler, and paved the path for his imperial power of Maurya in the Greek invaded areas. Alexander did not fight with the real political power of India which was represented by the Nanda Empire. He fought with much smaller powers and won victory. Even then, a small king like Porus showed to him the courage of the Indian side. The political myth created by the Greek writers that the Western army was superior to that of the Indian proved meaningless when Chandragupta Maurya not only drove out the Greeks from the Indian soil, but also defeated the most powerful Greek ruler after Alexander, **Seleucos Nikator**, and forced him to surrender a large part of his territory. Politically, thus, India rose as a mighty power of Asia soon after the invasion of Alexander the Great. |
| What commercial and chronological consequences did the invasion produce? | Commercial Impact and Building of Indian Chronology: Alexander’s invasion opened up the land routes between the Greek world in the West and the Indian sub-continent. It is said that he opened as many as **five different lines of communication** between India and the West during the course of his campaigns. Of those, **four routes were on land, and one by sea**. His voyages and campaigns enlarged the geographical horizon of both the western and eastern peoples. As a result, overland trade and maritime commerce began to develop between India and the West. After the destruction of the Persian Empire over which the Greeks began to rule, the lines of contact between India and the Western Asia and through that with Europe became more effective and direct. The geographical separation between the West and East was thus reduced to a large extent in the wake of Alexander’s invasion. Several Indian traders, artisans and religious scholars went to other countries and some people came to India from other countries. In this way, Indian contacts with Europe developed rapidly. The land routes to the West ran mainly through **Kabul**, the **Mulla Pass of Baluchistan** and **Gedrosia**. In his conquered territories, Alexander founded cities, military posts, and Greek settlements. Those places developed into centers of trade in course of time. Alexander’s invasion helped in the construction of the Indian history. He invaded India in `326 B.C.` a date which helped us a lot in determining the Indian chronology. Indian texts especially the Puranas have ignored to record events in chronological order. **Megasthenes** and other Greek writers have written a lot about the contemporary Indian society. Their descriptions have proved valuable in this respect. The historians who accompanied Alexander have given important information about the social and economic conditions of India. The Greek accounts have been corroborated by the archaeological evidences (especially numismatic evidences). |
| What Greek states and cultural exchanges followed Alexander’s departure? | Foundation of Greek States and Cultural Impact: After Alexander’s departure, the Greek generals who were left in India established their independent states on the North Western Frontiers of India. In this way, the Indians came in contact with the Greeks and both of them benefited from each other. India was rich in religion and philosophy at the time of the Greek invasion. The Greeks also were the pioneers of Western civilisation with a rich philosophy of their own. The historians, scholars and writers who came with Alexander closely observed the Indian philosophical systems and noted them in their descriptions. Alexander himself was curious to hear and know about some of the most difficult systems of Indian ascetics and philosophers. The description left by the Greek writers caused much curiosity in the advanced Greek minds of that time and of later periods. The Hindu and the Buddhist religious faiths and philosophies had an impact on the Greek world of philosophy following Alexander’s time. The Indians, on their part are supposed to have been impressed by the Greek coinage. King **Saubhuti**, struck coins in imitation of the Greek coins. Similarly, the Indians came to know of the Greek astronomy. And later on, they came to appreciate the Hellenistic art. Long after Alexander, this influence came to its admirable form in shape of the **Gandhara School of Art**. The images of Buddha, under this art, showed a remarkable mixture of the Greek and the Indian art of image making. Of course, this art perfected itself at the time of Emperor **Kanishka** who brought sculptors from the Greek settlements of **Bactria** for the work, and who were far remote from the days of Alexander the Great. |
→ Causes Responsible for the Defeat of the Indians by Alexander
→ Causes Responsible for the Defeat of the Indians by Alexander
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| Why did Indian forces fail against Alexander despite large numbers? | Disunity, Discipline, Elephants and Weather: Alexander showed the tremendous superiority of a trained army over the vast and unwieldy armies of Indian kingdoms. He had found routes to India by land and sea. He completely altered the balance of power and the political complexion of North Western India. Some of the main causes responsible for the defeat of the Indians were the following: The main cause of defeat was the **lack of unity** among the Indian rulers. Their mutual jealousy had made them utterly selfish. They could not pool their resources even at the time of national crisis. Alexander was undoubtedly a great general, perhaps one of the greatest generals that the world has ever produced. The Greek army was more disciplined and better organised than the Indian unwieldy and untrained, indisciplined armies. The Greek soldiers were familiar with the latest tactics. The elephants used by the Indians proved a liability rather than an asset for them. When wounded by the Greek archers they ran away in madness and trampled their own soldiers. Nature also seemed to favour the Macedonians. Because of rain and storm the Indian archers could not use their bows effectively on the slippery battle field. The Chariots could not move quickly and got stuck in the rain soaked mud. This slowness of movement proved very detrimental to the Indian side. The Indian side was taken unaware when Alexander attacked them all of a sudden. The idea that no one could cross the Jhelum in flood had rendered the Indian soldiers quite inactive and careless. |
23. Early Greek and Latin Historians and Geographers on India
23. Early Greek and Latin Historians and Geographers on India
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| How did the Greek name ‘India’ arise and who first wrote about India? | Name of India and the Earliest Greek Notices: The name of India, so far as is known, first appears in Greek literature in the 5th century B.C. in the works of **Hekataios** and **Herodotos**. The word is derived from the Indus river (Sanskrit *sindhu* means “river”), and in the Greek as well as the Persian language ‘India’ originally meant only the Indus region, which then belonged to the Persian empire. Herodotos, however, already used the term in a wider sense to denote the whole country; and classical Greek usage followed his example. |
→ Herodotus, Ktesias and Ptolemy Traditions
→ Herodotus, Ktesias and Ptolemy Traditions
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What did Herodotus and Ktesias report about India, and who were the Ptolemies as sources? | Father of History, Indika and Alexander’s Generals: **Herodotus** was a Greek historian widely referred to as “The Father of History”; he was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically and critically, and then to arrange them into a historiographic narrative. *The Histories* — his masterpiece and the only work he is known to have produced — include accounts of India among the oldest records of Indian civilisation by an outsider. Although Herodotos himself never visited India, he was an indefatigable collector of anecdotes from many sources. He knew, for example, that India embraced diverse peoples of widely varying physical appearance, customs and language. Herodotus reports that a species of fox-sized “ants” lives in one of the far eastern Indian provinces of the Persian Empire. This region, he reports, is a sandy desert, and the sand there contains a wealth of fine gold dust. These giant ants, according to Herodotus, would often unearth the gold dust and the people living in this province would then collect the precious dust. (This was denied by later historian **Pliny**.) Although Herodotus considered his “inquiries” a serious pursuit of knowledge, he was not above relating entertaining tales derived from the collective body of myth, but he did so judiciously with regard for his historical method, by corroborating the stories through enquiry and testing their probability. Herodotos’ notions of geography were understandably inaccurate: for instance his belief that the Indus flows eastward, and that India constitutes the easternmost inhabited region of Asia. The last of those Greeks before Alexander who are known to have written about India was **Ktesias**. He served for eight years (`405–397 B.C.`) as personal physician to the Persian king. Living thus at the Achaemenid court, he had unexampled opportunities to communicate with Persians of high rank and acquire an insight into the workings of the Persian empire. Upon his return to Greece, Ktesias wrote a book called *Persika*, covering the entire history of the Near East from its beginnings down to his own time, as well as a much smaller work called *Indika*. Both of these have disappeared. **Megasthenes’ *Indica*** is already discussed in a separate chapter. **Ptolemy I Soter** (`367 B.C. – 283 B.C.`) was a Macedonian general under Alexander the Great. He himself wrote a history of Alexander’s campaigns that has not survived. This was long considered an objective work, distinguished by its straightforward honesty and sobriety. **Arrian**, author of the most widely read account of Alexander the Great, noted that he relied most heavily on Ptolemy’s history. **Claudius Ptolemy** was a Greco-Egyptian writer of Alexandria, known as a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet. He lived in the city of Alexandria in the Roman province of Egypt, wrote in Greek, and held Roman citizenship. *The Geography* (also *Geographia*) is Ptolemy’s main work. It was known as the world’s geography in the Roman Empire of the 2nd century. Ptolemy relied mainly on the work of an earlier geographer. |
→ Arrian, Diodorus, Strabo, Plutarch, Curtius and Pliny
→ Arrian, Diodorus, Strabo, Plutarch, Curtius and Pliny
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What do Arrian’s Anabasis and Indica contribute to Alexander and India studies? | Arrian — Anabasis, Indica and Nearchus: **Arrian** was a Greek historian, public servant, military commander and philosopher of the Roman period. *The Anabasis of Alexander* is perhaps his best-known work and is generally considered one of the best sources on the campaigns of Alexander the Great. Arrian was able to use sources which are now mostly lost. Most important of all, Arrian had the biography of Alexander by Ptolemy, one of Alexander’s leading generals and friend from childhood until Alexander’s death. Arrian is a secondary source of Alexander’s biographical data: “Arrian is prone to misread and misinterpret his primary sources leading to many errors”. One of his principal sources, Ptolemy, inserted his own propaganda to exaggerate his personal achievements under Alexander and to discredit those of his rivals. It seems that Arrian wanted to make Alexander’s life a legend, so he exaggerated many of his achievements. Arrian’s other works include *Indica* which deals with the period of Alexander the Great. After Alexander the Great conquered the Indus valley, he planned to return to the center of his empire in Babylon. Alexander planned to return himself over land but wanted to learn about the mouth of the Indus (which he himself did not reach) and the sea between India and Babylon. Therefore, he sent one of his officers, **Nearchus**, to perform such a voyage and report what he saw. *Indica* mostly describes what Nearchus saw on that voyage. *Indica* begins with a description of the geography of India, in particular focusing on the size of the rivers Indus and the Ganges, together with their tributaries. Arrian draws upon a number of ancient sources in composing his *Indica*. His main source is the account written by Nearchus himself. Arrian also drew on a number of other ancient writers, including **Megasthenes** (whose own book was also named *Indica*). |
| What do Diodorus, Strabo, Plutarch, Curtius and Pliny record about India? | Later Greek and Roman Compilers: **Diodorus Siculus** was a Greek historian. He talked about Alexander’s invasion of India, his war with Porus, Nanda and **Gangaridai** states beyond Ganga etc. **Strabo** (`64 B.C. – A.D. 24`) was a Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian. Strabo was an extensive traveler, and although he had not visited India itself, he had journeyed sufficiently in distant lands to be able to judge of the general characteristics of countries described by others. His account of India draws chiefly from Greek records of Alexander’s campaigns. Strabo is most famous for his work *Geographica* (“Geography”), which presented a descriptive history of people and places from different regions of the world known to his era. As such, *Geographica* provides a valuable source of information on the ancient world, especially when this information is corroborated by other sources. Strabo, Pliny, Arrian compiled a map of India as known to the early Greeks, based on *Indica* of Megasthenes (4th century B.C.). **Plutarch** (`A.D. 46 – A.D. 120`) was a Greek historian, biographer, and essayist, known primarily for his *Parallel Lives*. He later became Roman citizen. He also talked about Alexander’s invasion of India, his war with Porus, Nanda and Gangaridai states beyond Ganga etc. Plutarch’s best-known work is the *Parallel Lives*, a series of biographies of famous Greeks and Romans. Plutarch’s *Life of Alexander* is one source on the Macedonian conqueror Alexander the Great. It includes anecdotes and descriptions of events that appear in no other source. Plutarch devotes a great deal of space to Alexander’s drive and desire. He talks about Alexander’s scorn for luxury: “He desired not pleasure or wealth, but only excellence and glory.” As explained in the opening paragraph of his *Life of Alexander*, Plutarch was not concerned with history so much as the influence of character, good or bad, on the lives and destinies of men. In many ways, he must be counted amongst the earliest moral philosophers. **Quintus Curtius** was a Roman historian, probably of the 1st century, author of his only known and only surviving work *Histories of Alexander the Great*. In his work, Curtius mainly does not identify sources. They were, perhaps, stated in the missing books. He does, however, mention **Cleitarchus**, a historian in camp, and Ptolemy. These men were participants in the Alexander story and therefore are counted as eyewitnesses, or primary sources. **Pliny the Elder** (`A.D. 23 – A.D. 79`) was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire. He wrote an encyclopedic work, *Naturalis Historia* (‘Natural History’), which became a model for all other encyclopedias. It covers topics including astronomy, mathematics, geography, ethnography, anthropology, human physiology, zoology, botany, agriculture, horticulture, pharmacology, mining, mineralogy, sculpture, painting, and precious stones. *Natural History* describes the voyage from Alexandria to South India on the Nile, Red Sea and then across the Indian Ocean to **Muziris** near Cochin which was based on earlier and contemporary reports and contains interesting facts, e.g. Rome’s drain of gold for its trade with India and the existence of piracy in the Indian Ocean. So much gold was used for Indo-Roman trade, and apparently recycled by the Kushan Empire for their own coinage, that Pliny the Elder complained about the drain of gold to India. Pliny lamented how India, the sink of precious metals, was draining Rome of gold. |
→ Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Indo-Roman Gold Drain
→ Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Indo-Roman Gold Drain
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What trade geography does the Periplus record for India? | Periplus — Ports, Gangaridai, Muziris and Barigaza: *The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea* or *Periplus of the Red Sea* is a Greco-Roman Periplus, written in Greek, describing navigation and trading opportunities from Roman Egyptian ports along the coast of the Red Sea, and others along Northeast Africa and the Indian subcontinent. The text has been ascribed to mid-1st century date. Its author is unknown. The Erythraean Sea literally means “Red Sea”. However, to the Greeks, it included the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf. The Periplus refers **Gangaridai** to be located on the Bay of Bengal north to the port city in Kalinga (ancient Orissa). It talks about Gangetic spikenard and pearls, and muslin and gold-mines near these places. The lost port city of **Muziris** (Near present day Cochin) in the **Chera** kingdom, as well as the Early **Pandyan** Kingdom are mentioned in the Periplus as major centers of trade, pepper and other spices, metal work and semiprecious stones, between South India and the Roman Empire. The Periplus also describes the annual fair in present-day Northeast India, on the border with China. Trade with the Indian harbour of **Barygaza** is described extensively in the Periplus. **Nahapana**, ruler of the Indo-Scythian Western Satraps as ruler of the area around Barigaza. Under the Western Satraps, Barigaza (**Bharuch**) was one of the main centers of Roman trade in the subcontinent. The Periplus describes the many goods exchanged. Goods were also brought down in quantity from **Ujjain**, the capital of the Western Satraps. The Periplus describes numerous Greek buildings and fortifications in Barigaza, falsely attributing them to Alexander the Great, who never went this far south. The Greek city of Alexandria on the Jhelum River is mentioned in the Periplus. The Periplus further testifies to the circulation of Indo-Greek coinage in the region bearing inscriptions in Greek letters, and the devices of those who reigned after Alexander and **Menander**. |
| Why did Pliny claim Rome was drained of gold by India, and what justifications support him? | Pliny’s Gold Drain Thesis and Supporting Evidence: In the closing centuries of the era before Christ, South Indian trade in spices like ginger, turmeric and pepper assumed great prominence. The Greeks and the Romans of those days carried on extensive trade with South India. During the first three centuries of the Christian era the trade between the Roman Empire and the East became quite extensive both by land and water because of the following reasons: With the Roman conquest of Egypt in the middle of the 1st century B.C. the Romans actively entered the field of spice trade, and the Arab monopoly broke up. In `45 A.D.` the discovery by **Hippalus** of the existing monsoon winds regularly blowing across the Indian Ocean gave an impetus to trade between South India and the West, for voyage along the coast line thereafter gave place to oceanic voyage directly to Muziris and other ports of South India. South Indian trade in spices like ginger, turmeric and pepper and luxury goods assumed great prominence as these were in high demand in Western World including Rome. Pliny says that there was a widespread use of eastern aromatics in Roman society. Roman particularly women were passionate about Indian pearls and muslin. The Chinese silk, for which India was an intermediary, was in high demand in Roman world. Cardamom, ginger, turmeric and pepper are among the spices mentioned by **Diosorides** (`40–90 A.D.`), the Greek physician and contemporary of Pliny, in his *Materia Medico*, as possessing medicinal virtue. Hence Indian spices were in demand for medicinal purpose also. On the other hand, Roman products were not very attractive in the East. Roman merchants exported glass and wine, but the bulk of the exchange was paid for in precious metal like gold and silver. Ancient authors like Pliny the Elder believed that this unequal balance of trade caused a drain of gold from Rome to India. Pliny the Elder laments the drain of Roman gold into India in return for unproductive luxuries and spices. He in his book *Natural history* supplies some figures: In one passage he refers, like the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, to the sea trade between Egypt and India. Each year, Pliny says, no less than **50 million sesterces** (an ancient Roman coin) was drained off by India, which sent back goods sold at 100 times their original value. In another passage Pliny says: the women and the luxury trade with India, China, and the Arabian Peninsula cost not less than **100 million sesterces** per year. This figure is probably included in the estimate for India (50 million sesterces). There is simply no way of knowing whether the figures are dubious or not. Both passages are indeed alarmist and might be exaggerated by Pliny. Also neither of the statements in fact mentions anything about gold or silver, each giving the alleged values in terms of sesterces. Justifications in favour of Pliny’s claim: We can’t brush Pliny’s claims aside. However curious its concerns may seem, Pliny’s *Natural History* is the most intense exploration of man’s relation to his physical environment in the widest sense known to us from antiquity. If he expresses concern about the cost of luxury trade with East, then the existence of this luxury trade was known in Rome and it was felt to be an issue of some importance. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea also suggests that Roman ships sailing to southern India carried ‘mainly a great amount of money’ and the discovery of dozens of imperial coin hoards in this region provides support for this statement. Pepper (black and white) was imported in large quantities is proved by the fact that it was valued by the Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name *yavana Priya* (dear to the Romans) was given to it by Indian Sanskrit writers. In Rome there were special storehouses, which could contain thousands of pounds of pepper. At the Roman Customs House Alexandria imported spices were scrutinised and taxed. When Constantinople became the capital of the Roman Empire in `30 A.D.` that city developed into a centre of trade in oriental spices. Eastern trade had drained bullion resources from the Roman Empire are proved by the stress on the Roman currency system due to the scarcity of bullion. At one time, Rome had to ban trade in silk, cutlery and other goods which were imported by it from the East. Inscriptions from western India mention foreign perfume merchants (*yavanagandhika*), and it is probable that they had their own quarters in the port towns in western India. This proves prevalence of large scale trade in spices. The excavations have also revealed the remains of a Roman trading station and a large number of mini-fresh Roman coins issued in the early centuries of the Christian era. Roman coins were buried in the earth in different places along the breadth of Tamil India from the Malabar to the East Coast. The mention of a Temple of **Augustus** at Muziris proves presence of Roman traders in South India. The ancient texts of India emphasised that the basis of foreign trade with West was earning profits. Though we have no reliable evidence on the price of silk in the Roman Empire, one ancient source says it was worth its weight in gold. The introduction of gold coinage on a significant scale by **Vima Kadphises** (Kushana ruler) in the 1st century A.D. also makes it clear that India had a favourable balance of trade with the Roman world (through land also). |
→ Nature and Impact of India’s Contact with Western Asia and the Mediterranean
→ Nature and Impact of India’s Contact with Western Asia and the Mediterranean
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What forms of contact linked India with Western Asia and the Mediterranean world? | Diplomatic, Trade, Dhamma-vijaya and Matrimonial Ties: Nature of India’s contact with Western Asia and Mediterranean world included: **Diplomatic relations** — examples of Greek Ambassador **Megasthenes** in the court of Chandragupta, Syrian Ambassador **Deimachus** and Egyptian Ambassador **Dionysius** in Bindusara’s court can be cited to support it. **Cordial relationship** — the story of Bindusara requesting **Antiochus** to buy and send him some sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist is often cited to support the good relationship between India and Syria. **Trade relationship** — Trade and Commerce between India and Western Asia and the Mediterranean world flourished which is supported by evidence of Greek and Persian coins and accounts of Megasthenes, Arabian etc. ***Dhamma-vijaya*** — Dhamma missions were sent to different countries and Ashoka claims to have attained Dhamma-Vijaya in the dominions of **Antiochus II**, **Ptolemy II Philadelphus** of Egypt, **Magas** of Cyrene (North Africa), **Antigonus Gonatas** of Macedonia, and **Alexander of Epirus**. **Matrimonial relationship** — According to Roman historian **Appian**, Seleucus entered into the marriage relationship with Chandragupta Maurya; however, this account is not very reliable. |
| Summarise Persian and Greek impacts on administration, script, art and chronology. | Persian Impacts and Greek Impacts: **Persian Impacts:** Achaemenid rulers Cyrus and Darius annexed parts of Punjab and Sindh. Indian subjects enrolled in the Achaemenid army. Their rule lasted for 2 centuries. Flourishing trade and commerce between Persia and India. Some Persian gold and silver coins were found in Punjab. Impact on the administrative structure of Mauryan empire — for example, Persian title of *Satrapa* (governor) continued to be used by Indian Provincial governors as *Kshtrapa*. Use of *Kharosthi* in Ashokan Inscriptions. Influence is seen in Ashokan edicts, Mauryan art and culture like in Ashokan pillars. Chandragupta Maurya used to take ceremonial hair bath. It used to be in typical Persian style. Presence of sacred fire shows Zoroastrian influence. **Greek Impact:** Alexander’s conquest of North-west India and North-west India came under **Seleucus Nikator**, who declared himself king after Alexander’s death. Later, it paved the way for unification and conquest of Northwest India by Chandragupta Maurya. Discovery of routes by sea and land between India and Europe which led to increase in trade and commerce. Art of making well-shaped and beautifully designed gold and silver coins came from Greeks. Greek influence on Indian astrology. Greek accounts of Megasthenes, Arrian etc. provide valuable information about socio economic life including crafts like carpentry, brisk trade, prosperity etc. Ideas and notions of Indian philosophy and religion went to the Western world. Greek accounts also helped in framing chronology of ancient Indian history — for example, Date of Alexander’s victory in `326 B.C.` |
24. Buddhism and Gautama Buddha — Life
24. Buddhism and Gautama Buddha — Life
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| Trace the life of the Buddha from Lumbini birth to Kushinara Mahaparinirvana. | Siddhartha Gautama — Renunciation, Enlightenment and Parinirvana: Among the notable contemporaries of Mahavira was **Gautam Buddha**, the founder of Buddhism. His name was **Siddhartha** and he belonged to the **Gautama gotra**. He was born in `563 B.C.` in **Lumbini** (now in Nepal) in the **Shakya** Kshatriya clan of **Kapilvastu**. The site of his nativity is marked by the celebrated **Rumnindei Pillar** of Asoka Maurya. He was the son of **Suddhodana**, who seems to have been the elected ruler of Kapilvastu, and headed the republican clan of the Shakyas. His mother, **Maya** was a princess of **Devadaha**, a small town in the Shakya territory. Maya died in child-birth and the little Siddhartha was brought up by his aunt and stepmother **Prajapati Gautami**. At the age of sixteen the prince was married to a lady known to tradition as **Bhadda Kachchana**, **Yasodhara**, **Subhadraka**. Since his early childhood Gautama showed a meditative bent of mind. The sight of an old man, a sick man, a dead body and an ascetic (the **Four Great signs**) intensified Gautama’s deep hatred for the world and made him realise the hollowness of worldly pleasure. At the birth of his son **Rahula**, he left home at the age of **twenty-nine** in search of the Truth. This departure is known as ‘The Great Renunciation’ (*mahabhinishkramana* / *Mahabhinishkramana*). For six years he lived as a homeless ascetic, seeking instruction under two religious teachers **Alara Kalama** (at Vaishali) and **Uddaka** or **Ramaputta** (at Rajagriha) and visiting many places. At **Uruvela**, he practised the most rigid austerities only to find that they were of no help to him in reaching his goal. He then took a bath in the stream of the river **Niranjana**, modern Lilajan, and sat under a pipal tree at modern **Bodh Gaya**. Here, at last at the age of **35** he attained unto supreme knowledge and became known as the **Buddha** or the enlightened one, ‘*Tathagata*’ (he who had attained the truth) and **Sakya-Muni** or the sage of Sakya clan. He gave his first sermon at **Isipatana**, the deer park at **Sarnath**. This sermon was called the “*Dharma Chakra Pravartana*” or “turning of the wheel of law” (*Dhammacakkappavattana*). For forty-five years he roamed about as a wandering teacher and proclaimed his gospel to the princes and people and laid the foundation of the Buddhist Order of monks (*Sangha*). Gautama Buddha passed away at the age of **80** in `483 B.C.` at a place called **Kusinagar**, identical with the village called **Kasia** in the district of Deoria in eastern Uttar Pradesh. (*Mahaparinirvana*) |
→ Doctrines of Buddhism
→ Doctrines of Buddhism
| Cue Words | Notes | ||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| What practical orientation and core doctrines define early Buddhism? | Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path and Middle Path: Buddha proved to be a practical reformer who took note of the realities of the day. He did not involve himself in fruitless controversies regarding the soul (*atman*) and the Brahma which raged strongly in his time; he addressed himself to the worldly problems. Within Buddhism, *samsara* is defined as the continual repetitive cycle of birth and death. *Karma* is the force that drives *saṃsara*. Buddha taught his followers the Four “Noble Truths” (*Arya Satya*): (1) The World is full of sorrows (*dukkha*); (2) The cause of sorrow is desire (*trishna*); (3) If desires are conquered, all sorrows can be removed; and (4) The only way this can be done is by following the “Middle-Path” (*ashtangika marga* or Noble Eightfold Path). It comprised:
According to Buddha’s teachings, anyone who follows this path, considered as the ‘middle path’ (madhyama pratipad), would attain salvation irrespective of his social position. (Middle Path: The practice of non-extremism: a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.) The striving for salvation requires in the first place the observance of the Silas or moralities, the next requisite is Samadhi or concentration and finally Prajna or insight. These ultimately lead to Sambodhi (enlightenment) and Nirvana (perfect enlightenment, a state wherein it becomes clear that all dualities apparent in the world are delusory). | ||||||||||||||||||
| How does Buddhism treat Karma, Anatta, Anicca and dependent origination? | *Karma* without Soul, Three Marks and *Pratityasamutpada*: Another doctrine on which Buddha laid great emphasis is the law of *Karma*, its working and the transmigration of soul. Like the Jainas, he rejected the authority of the Vedas. The Buddha may be called an agnostic, because he neither accepts nor rejects the existence of God. According to Buddha, all things are composite, and as a corollary, all things are transient, for the composition of all aggregates is liable to change. The concept of liberation (*nirvana*) — the goal of the Buddhist path — is closely related to overcoming ignorance, a fundamental misunderstanding or mis-perception of the nature of reality. In awakening to the true nature of the self and all phenomena one develops dispassion for the objects of clinging, and is liberated from suffering (*dukkha*) and the cycle of incessant rebirths (*saṃsara*). To this end, the Buddha recommended viewing things as characterised by the three marks of existence: *anicca* (transiency), *dukka* (sorrow), and *anatta* (soullessness). Whatever is transient is painful, and where change and sorrow prevail, the question of a permanent immortal soul does not arise. This three-fold characterisation of the nature of the world and all that it contains — *anicca* (transiency), *dukka* (sorrow), and *anatta* (soullessness). There is nothing like an enduring self in a man, who is composed of five groups (*Skandha*) of physical and mental factors called *Rupa* (form), *Samjna* (Name), *Vedana* (sensations), *Vijnana* (consciousness) and *Samskara* (Disposition). Thus the individual is made up of a combination of these five components, which are never the same from one moment to the next, and therefore his whole being is in a state of constant flux. According to Buddha, every effect is caused and every cause has an effect. The Buddha discovered the twelve-linked chain of causation (*Patichchha-Samuppada* / *Pratityasamutpada*) which is: Ignorance (*Avidya*), Impressions of past actions (*Samaskaras*), Consciousness (*Vijnana*), Psychophysical organism (*Nama-rupa*), Sense-organs with objects (*Sparsa*), Sensations (*Vedana*), Thirst for sense-enjoyments (*trisna*), Clinging to the enjoyments (*Upadana*), Will to be born (*Bhava*), Birth or Rebirth (*Jati*) and Old age and Death (*Jara-marana*). |
→ The Buddhist Sangha
→ The Buddhist Sangha
| Cue Words | Notes |
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| How was the Buddhist Sangha organised as a democratic monastic order? | Bhikshus, Upasakas, Ordination and Assembly Rules: The Buddha had two kinds of disciples — monks (*bhikshus* or *shramanas*) and lay worshippers (*upasakas*). The former were organised into the *Sangha* or congregation. The membership of the *Sangha* was open to all persons, male or female above fifteen years of age and who were free from leprosy, consumption and other infectious diseases. Persons who were in the service of the king or an individual, or who were in debt, or had been branded as robbers or criminals were refused admission into the *Sangha*. There were no caste restrictions. Monasteries were constructed for the accommodation of monks and nuns for carrying on their studies and meditation, which gradually developed into academic centers. Every Buddhist monk has to be a *Sramana* before being ordained as a full-fledged member of the *Sangha*. The higher ordination or *Bhikshus* is called *upasampada*. Whenever a new person desired to join the *Sangha*, he or she had to shave his or her head, put on a yellow robe and take the oaths of fidelity to the *triratna*, viz. the Buddha, the *Dhamma* and the *Sangha*. The *Sangha* was governed on democratic lines and was empowered to enforce discipline among its members. The monks of a monastery were to hold a fortnight assembly, were to elect their president (*Sanghaparinayaka*), and to select two speakers, one on *dhamma* and the other on *Vinaya*. In the assembly meetings, there were the systems of formal moving of resolution (*Jnapati*) and ballot voting by means of wooden sticks (*salaka*). No assembly was valid unless at least ten monks were present; novices and women were not entitled to vote or to constitute the quorum. |
→ Buddhist Councils
→ Buddhist Councils
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| What were the four Buddhist Councils, their venues, patrons and outcomes? | Four Councils — Rajgir, Vaishali, Pataliputra and Kashmir:
The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the Theravada school. The Fourth Council’s purpose was to settle the differences among all the 18 sects of Buddhism and to compose the commentaries. A new branch under the leadership of Ashvaghosha came up known as ‘Mahayana’; followers of this group came to practise worship of the Buddha’s image. |
→ Spread of Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana
→ Spread of Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana
| Cue Words | Notes |
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| How did Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana differ in goal, geography and practice? | Three Vehicles — Arhat Ideal, Bodhisattva Ideal and Tantra: **Theravada** tradition is based on the set of teachings decided by the Third Council to contain the teachings of the Buddha. **Shri Lanka** has played a central role in preserving the Theravada scriptures and practices. After the Third Council, the Tripitaka collection of sutras were taken to Shri Lanka. Most of these were originally in the Pali language, but some were compiled in other languages. Through the centuries however, all teachings were translated into Pali (around `35 BCE`). Initially, most ordained *Sangha* were known as *parivrajahas* (wanderers). They would assemble during the rainy season when travelling became problematic. Gradually, buildings were donated and the *Sangha* became more static. Just a century after the Buddha passed away, monasteries became the main mechanism for preservation of the teachings. Also extra monastic rules were introduced. Only during one short period in history Buddhism was banned in Shri Lanka, but it was later restored with teachings from Thailand which in turn had originated in Shri Lanka. The main countries where the Theravada tradition is currently alive and well are Shri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and Laos. The teachings on the Four Noble Truths and meditation form the basis of Theravada practice. In India, non-Mahayana or Hinayana sects developed independent from the form of Buddhism existing in Sri Lanka. Today, there is no Hinayana tradition in existence anywhere, although Theravada could be called the tradition most like Hinayana. The ultimate goal of the Theravadin and other non-Mahayana practice is to attain the state of an **Arhat**, as Buddhahood is considered practically unachievable for nearly everyone within this aeon. Although helping other sentient beings is accepted as an important Buddhist practice, the main motivation for following the spiritual path is to achieve liberation for oneself — *Nirvana*. **Nagarjuna** developed the Mahayana philosophy of *Sunyata* (emptiness) and proved that everything is ‘Void’ (not only the self) in a small text called *Madhyamika-karika*. About the 4th Century CE, the Masters **Asanga** and **Vasubandhu** wrote enormous amount of works on Mahayana. The Mahayana teachings were mainly written down in Sanskrit. The Mahayana philosophy is based on the older tradition and fully accepts these teachings, but not all traditional interpretations. One of the most important aspects is for example the traditional interpretation that Buddhahood can be achieved only by very few people. The Mahayana teaches instead that every sentient being (being with a mind) can become a Buddha, the only thing preventing our full enlightenment is the failure to improve one’s own actions and state of mind. This motivation is reflected in taking an additional set of vows, known as **Bodhisattva vows**. The main vow is to free all sentient beings from suffering. These vows are not taken for this life only, but for all future lives as well, until this goal is achieved. The Mahayana tradition mainly developed in North India, and spread further North into China and Tibet. In China, Buddhist philosophy and practice was often mixed with Taoist and Confucian aspects. Via China, Mahayana Buddhism also spread to other countries like Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and Japan. Also, in China the **Ch’an** tradition evolved, which was introduced into Japan. Around the 6th century A.D., within the Mahayana tradition the tantras or tantric texts emerged. Tantric practices are psychologically very profound techniques to quickly achieve Buddhahood. This is considered important, not for oneself, but because as a Buddha one has the best achievable qualities to help others. The motivation is: ‘the faster I can achieve Buddhahood, the sooner I can be of maximum benefit to others’. Depending on the class of tantra, extra vows may need to be taken on top of the Refuge and Bodhisattva vows. Also, specific commitments may be required like doing a specific retreat, daily recitation of mantras or a daily meditation practice. In the 8th century, the Mahayana and **Tantrayana** (or **Vajrayana**) traditions of (North) Indian Buddhism were introduced into **Tibet**. In fact, only in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia a virtually complete set of tantric teachings was preserved. The Tibetan tradition can also be found in the Himalayan range of **Ladakh** (Northwest India), **Sikkhim** (Northeast India) and Nepal, and in Mongolia (which is virtually identical to the Tibetan tradition). In China and countries like Korea and Japan, remnants of Vajrayana can be found. **Comparison between Mahayana and Hinayana:** Mahayana means “great vehicle” and Hinayana means “lesser vehicle.” A great vehicle is like a large ship that can carry many people over the ocean. A lesser vehicle is like a little boat that can carry only a few people across a river. The word vehicle is used to describe the Buddha’s teachings, since the ultimate purpose of the teachings is to carry people from the shore of this impure world to the other shore of enlightenment. |
→ Buddhist Scriptures — Tripitaka and Beyond
→ Buddhist Scriptures — Tripitaka and Beyond
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| What constitutes the Pali Tripitaka and its three baskets? | Pali Canon — *Vinaya*, *Sutta* and *Abhidhamma*: The sacred scriptures of the Buddhists are in **Pali**. The word Pali means simply ‘text’ or ‘sacred text’. As a language, Pali is an archaic Prakrit and in the days of Buddha was the spoken language of the Magadha and adjoining territories. The Buddhist scriptures in Pali are commonly referred to as *Tripitaka*, i.e. ‘Threefold Basket’, which consists of: (1) *Vinaya Pitaka*; (2) *Sutta Pitaka*; (3) *Abhidhamma Pitaka*. **I. The Vinaya Pitaka:** It contains pronouncements attributed to the Buddha, laying down numerous rules for the conduct of the Order. Supplementing this, the *Mahavagga*, ‘Great Section’, lays down rules for admission to the monastic order, regulations on dress, etc. The *Chullavagga*, ‘Smaller Section’, contains duties for monks and nuns, edifying Buddhist stories, methods of settling disputes among monks, etc. **II. The Sutta Pitaka:** The largest and most important of the ‘Three Baskets’ is the *Sutta Pitaka* which consists chiefly of discourses both small and long as delivered by the Buddha himself. It is divided into five groups called *Nikaya*:
Important texts of the Khuddaka-Nikaya include: (a) The Khuddaka Patha — book for youngsters when they join the Sangha; (b) The Dhammapada (“Verses on Virtue”) — best known of the canonical texts, collection of aphoristic verses garnered from the sayings of Buddha, regarded as one of the great religious texts of the world; (c) The Suttanipata — preserves many fragments of the oldest Buddhist poetry and gives valuable information on the social and religious conditions of Buddha’s time; (d) The Jataka — collection of over 500 poems, briefly outlining folk-tales and other stories; (e) The Bhuddhavamsa — records legends in verse about the twenty-four Buddhas who preceded Gautama in earlier times; (f) The Theragatha — “Hymns of the elder Monks”, some of India’s greatest religious poetry; (g) The Therigatha — The Hymns of the Nuns. III. The Abhidhamma Pitaka: It consists of a number of works on Buddhist psychology and metaphysics. Of its seven books, the Dhammasangani provides a good exposition of Buddhist philosophy, psychology and ethics; and the Kathavatthu, ascribed to Moggaliputta Tissa, is valuable for the light it throws on the evolution of Buddhist dogmas. | ||||||||||||||||||||
| What non-canonical Pali and Mahayana Sanskrit texts are central for UPSC? | Non-Canonical Pali and Sanskrit Mahayana Sutras: Non-canonical Pali texts were composed during the Kushana periods. Prominent works are *Milindapanho* (Questions of Menander) which gives an account of the discussions of the Greek King **Menander** and the monk **Nagasena**; *Mahavastu* (Great Subject) — presents some Hinayana doctrines along with additional metaphysics of the Mahasanghika sects; the *Lalitavistara* (`30 B.C.`) an anonymous biography of Buddha written in the *Gatha* (Sanskritized Prakrit) form of language, contains some Hinayana material but is largely Mahayanist; and the verse chronicles *Dipavamsa* and *Mahavamsa* which tell the history of Buddhism in Ceylon and give valuable information on political and social history also. Of these the earliest, *Dipavamsa* (the “Island Chronicle”) dates from the 4th century A.D. and has no literary merit, but the *Mahavamsa* (“Great Chronicle”) of the following century, composed by the monk **Mahanama**, contains passages of beauty and vigour. It was continued as the *Culvamsa* (“Lesser Chronicle”) by a succession of monks down to the fall of the kingdom of Kandy to the British. The bulk of the Buddhist literature in Pali belongs to the Hinayana school and hence the Pali canon are spoken as the Hinayana Canon. With the rise of Mahayanism, Sanskrit was adopted by the Mahayanist School. There are a few Sanskrit texts belonging to the Hinayana School. The bulk of Buddhist literature in Sanskrit belongs to the Mahayana School. Among the Mahayana Sutras, the following texts or *dharmas*, also called the *Vaipulya Sutras* (“Expanded Sermons”) are regarded as the most important:
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→ Expansion and Development of Buddhism
→ Expansion and Development of Buddhism
| Cue Words | Notes |
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| Which rulers and saint-scholars expanded Buddhism from Asoka to the Palas? | Royal Patrons and Buddhist Philosophers: The emergence of **Asoka, The Great** (`273–232 B.C.`) was an important turning point in the history of Buddhism, who embraced Buddhism and made the Buddha *dhamma* the basis of all his actions in the spiritual as well as temporal fields. According to tradition, the Third Buddhist Council was held by Asoka and missionaries were sent not only to South India but also to Sri Lanka, Burma and other countries to propagate Buddhism there. Its popularity further increased when the Greeks and the Kushans, who established their hold over North-West India in the second century B.C. and first century B.C. respectively, embraced Buddhism and did their utmost to popularize it. Of them, the names of the Greek king **Menander** and the Kushana ruler **Kanishka** are the most prominent. **Harsha** (`606–647 A.D.`) was the last illustrious Buddhist ruler, and after his death Buddhism declined rapidly. In the early medieval period, Buddhism was practised by the **Palas**. The period (`200 B.C.` to `700 A.D.`) saw the emergence of a number of Buddhist saint-scholars who made an immense contribution to the Buddhist philosophy and religion. **Asvaghosha**, who was a contemporary of Kanishka, wrote *Buddhacharita*, a poetic biography of Buddha, and probably was the author of the *Sraddhotpada*. **Nagarjuna**, who was a friend and contemporary of the Satavahana King **Yagnasri Gautampiputra** (`166` to `196 A.D.`), propounded the **Madhyamika** school of Buddhist philosophy popularly known as *Sunyavada*. **Asanga** was the most important teacher of the **Yogacara** or *Vijnanavada* school founded by his guru, **Maitreyanatha**, in the fourth century A.D. **Vasubandhu**, brother of Asanga, wrote the *Abhidhammakosa*, an important encyclopaedia of Buddhism. **Buddhaghosa** (5th century A.D.) wrote *Visuddhimanga* which is considered as key to the Tripitaka. **Buddhapalita** and **Bhavaviveka** were important exponents of the *Sunyavada* doctrine in the fifth century A.D. **Dinnaga** is well known as the founder of the Buddhist logic and wrote about 100 treatises on logic in the fifth century A.D. The *Sunyavada* doctrine was further interpreted by distinguished thinkers like **Aryadeva, Santideva, Santaraksita** and **Kamalasila**. **Dharmakirti**, who lived in the seventh century A.D., was another great Buddhist logician. Acknowledging his unsurpassed genius some call him the Kant of India. |
→ Factors for the Rise of Buddhism
→ Factors for the Rise of Buddhism
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| What eleven factors explain the rapid rise of Buddhism? | Time, Simplicity, Language, Personality and Institutions: (1) **Influence of Time:** 6th Century B.C. was an ideal time for the spread of Buddhism. It was a time when people were fed up with the superstitions, complex rituals and rites and blind beliefs. The message of the Buddha came as a welcome relief to people already groaning under the oppressive weight of Brahmanism. They were easily drawn to Buddhism by the simplicity of its faith and its religious tolerance. (2) **Simple Doctrines:** As compared with Jainism, Buddhism was essentially simple. It did not confuse the people. Rather its *Arya Satya*, Eight-fold Path and concept of non-violence were so simple that people could easily understand and follow these. Buddhism also lacked the severity of Jainism, as well as the complexity of Vedic rituals. The people, already fed up with Brahminical manipulations of Vedic religion, came to accept Buddhism as a soothing and refreshing change. (3) **Simple Language:** The Buddha spread his message in the simple language of the masses of people. The Prakrit language which Buddha used was the spoken language of India. The Vedic religion was understood only with the help of Sanskrit language which was the monopoly of the Brahmins. Buddhism was easily understood and people accepted it after being convinced about its simple philosophy and pleasing message. (4) **Personality of Buddha:** The personality of the Buddha endeared him and his religion to the masses. The Buddha was kind and ego-less. His calm composure, sweet words of simple philosophy and his life of renunciation drew the masses to him. He had ready moral solutions for problems of the people. His example of a prince renouncing the world to save humanity from sins and rebirth and wandering from place to place to convince the people with his messages and sermons came to naturally evoke awe, admiration and acceptance of the people for him and his religion. The spread of Buddhism was thus rapid. (5) **Inexpensive:** Buddhism was inexpensive, without the expensive rituals that characterized the Vedic religion. Practical morality, not rites and expensive rituals, came as its beacon feature and helped to set up a healthy tradition in society. It advocated a spiritual path without any material obligations of satisfying gods and Brahmins through rituals and gifts. People competed to embrace Buddhism. (6) **No Caste Barrier:** Buddhism did not believe in caste-distinctions. It opposed the caste system and regarded people of all castes equally. Its followers sat together, forgetting their caste and discussed ethics and morality. The non-Brahmins in particular were drawn to its fold. Its popularity spread by leaps and bounds. Buddhism made a special appeal to the people of the non-Vedic areas where it found a virgin soil for conversion, especially the people of Magadha responded readily to the Buddhism because they were looked down upon by the orthodox brahmanas. Women were also admitted to the *Sangha* and thus brought on par with men. In comparison with Brahmanism, Buddhism was liberal and democratic. (7) **Royal Patronage:** Royal patronage of Buddhism also accounted for its rapid rise. The Buddha himself was a Kshatriya prince. Kings like **Prasenjit, Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Asoka, Kanishka** and **Harshavardhan** patronised Buddhism and helped its spread throughout India and outside, as well. Asoka deputed his children, **Mahendra** and **Sanghamitra**, to Sri Lanka for the spread of Buddhism. Kanishka and Harshavardhan worked untiringly for the spread of Buddhism throughout India. (8) **Role of the Universities:** Prominent was also the role of the Universities at **Nalanda, Taxila, Puspagiri** and **Vikramsila** in the spread of Buddhism. Students from various parts of India and from outside India, reading in these universities, were attracted to Buddhism and embraced it. They also dedicated themselves to the spread of Buddhism. The famous Chinese pilgrim **Hiuen Tsang** was a student of the Nalanda University. Its teachers like **Shilavadra, Dharmapala, Chandrapala** and **Divakamitra** were renowned scholars. Others who followed it were **Dignnaga, Dharmakirti, Vasubandhu** etc. (9) **Buddhist Monks and Sangha:** The Buddhist monks and the Buddhist ‘Order’ (*Sangha*) did incomparable service for the spread of Buddhism. Prominent among Buddha’s disciples were **Ananda, Sariputta, Maudgalayana, Sudatta** and **Upali** etc. They were singularly determined and dedicated to spread Buddhism throughout India. The Buddhist *sanga* came to establish its branches throughout India. Soon local people were drawn to these branches of the Buddhist ‘Order’. They either became monks (*bhikshu*) or *Upasakas* (lay-worshippers) and led lives of austere serenity. Their example influenced more and more people to follow it. As a result, Buddhism spread rapidly. (10) **Buddhist Councils:** The Buddhist Councils played an important role for the teaching and spread of Buddhism in India (detailed under Councils section). These councils were being held with regular intervals. So the popular liking could be kept sustained towards Buddhism. The people were closely following the deliberations of these councils and were increasingly drawn into its fold. This accounted for the continuous popularity of Buddhism. (11) **Absence of Strong Rivals:** Right from its beginning in the 6th Century B.C., Buddhism had no rivals to reckon or contend with. Though Jainism became popular, the severity of its laws made people far away from it. The missionary zeal of Buddhism was conspicuously absent in contemporary Hinduism. There was no reformer to cleanse the Brahminical faith and spread it among the people in its pure form. Islam and Christianity were yet to be born. As a result, Buddhism came to hold an unrivalled sway throughout India. |
→ Causes for the Decline of Buddhism
→ Causes for the Decline of Buddhism
| Cue Words | Notes |
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| What twelve causes account for the decline of Buddhism in India? | Corruption, Hindu Revival, Schism and Invasions: (1) **Corruptions in Buddhist Sanghas:** In course of time, the Buddhist ‘*Sangha*’ became corrupt. The monks and followers came to be drawn towards luxury and enjoyment. Receiving and saving valuable gifts like gold and silver made them greedy and materialistic. They came to lead a life of indiscipline. Their example and perverted life-style could not but bring popular hatred. No more the people were inclined towards Buddhism. (2) **Reform in Hinduism:** Buddhism had dealt a heavy blow to Brahminical faith. Threatened with extinction, Hinduism started to re-organise itself. Attempts were now made to give up the complex system of rites and rituals and make Hinduism simple and attractive. The Hindus even came to accept the Buddha as a Hindu incarnation and accepted the principle of non-violence. This helped revive Hinduism and made it popular again. This took away the fragrance out of the flower of Buddhism. The decline of Buddhism became inevitable. (3) **Division among the Buddhists:** Buddhism faced divisions from time to time. Division into various splinter groups like ‘Hinayana’, ‘Mahayana’, ‘Vajrayana’, ‘Tantrayana’ and ‘Sahajayana’ led Buddhism to lose its originality. Also the influence of tantricism made people hate it. The simplicity of Buddhism was lost and it was becoming complex. This was enough for the people to keep away from it. The decline of Buddhism became a matter of time. (4) **Use of Sanskrit Language:** Pali and Prakrit, the spoken language of most people of India, was the medium for the spread of the message of Buddhism. But Sanskrit replaced these at the Fourth Buddhist Council during the reign period of Kaniska. Sanskrit was a complex language, hardly understood by common people. It was the unintelligible Sanskrit language that had accounted for the decline of Hinduism, earlier. Now, when Buddhism adopted that language, few people were able to understand it. People rejected what they could not understand. (5) **Patronage of Brahmanism:** In course of time there was the rise of the Brahminical faith once again. **Pushyamitra Sunga**, the Brahmin commander of the last Maurya ruler **Vrihadratha**, assassinated the king and founded the Sunga dynasty replacing the Maurya dynasty. The *Asvamedha* sacrifice was done by him. It gave an impetus to the Brahminical faith. Non-violence, the basic principle of Buddhism, was given up. He destroyed many stupas and monasteries. Many Buddhist monks were put to sword. This stemmed the growth of Buddhism. Again, patronage of the imperial Guptas for Brahminical faith came to open the path of decline for Buddhism. (6) **Role of Hindu Preachers:** **Harsavardhan** drove away the Brahmins from the religious council held at Kanauj. These Brahmins, under **Kumarila Bhatta**, fled to the Deccan. Under Bhatta’s leadership, Brahmanism staged a come-back. **Adi Sankaracharya** also revived and strengthened Hinduism. He defeated Buddhist scholars in religious discourses which were held in many places in course of his tour of the whole of India. Thus, the superiority of Hinduism over Buddhism was established. This trend continued through the efforts of **Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Ramananda** etc. Hinduism regained its lost glory, position and popularity. It came to be at the expense of Buddhism. (7) **Rifts in Buddhist Order:** The internal rifts and divisions in Buddhist order made the rise of any new apostle impossible. The earlier examples of Ananda, Sariputta and Maudgalayana became very rare. The spirit and missionary zeal of Buddhism was lost for ever. Thus, the decline of Buddhism came in the absence of dynamic preachers and reformers. (8) **Buddha Worship:** Image worship was started in Buddhism by the Mahayana Buddhists. They started worshipping the image of the Buddha. This mode of worship was a violation of the Buddhist principles of opposing complex rites and rituals of Brahminical worship. This paradox led the people to believe that Buddhism is tending towards the fold of Hinduism. Buddhism’s importance decreased thereby. (9) **Loss of Royal Patronage:** In course of time Buddhism came to lose royal patronage. No king, worthy of note, came forward to sponsor Buddhism after Asoka, Kaniska and Harsavardhan. Royal patronage works magically for the spread of any faith. Absence of any such patronage for Buddhism came to pave the way for its decline in the end. (10) **Huna Invasion:** The ‘Huna’ invasion jolted Buddhism. Huna leaders like **Toamana** and **Mihirakula** opposed non-violence completely. They killed the Buddhists residing in the north-western part of India. This frightened the Buddhists of the region either to give up Buddhism or go into hiding. None dared to spread the message of the Buddha during those times. As a result, Buddhism became weak and depleted. (11) **Emergence of Rajputs:** Emergence of the Rajputs became an important reason for the decline of Buddhism. Kings of such dynasties as **Bundela, Chahamana, Chauhan, Rathore** etc. loved warfare. They could not tolerate the Buddhists for their message of non-violence. The Buddhists feared persecution from these Rajput rulers and fled from India. Buddhism became weaker and faced decline. (12) **Muslim Invasion:** The Muslim invasion of India almost wiped out Buddhism. Their invasions of India became regular and repeated from `712 A.D.` onwards. Such invasions forced the Buddhist monks to seek asylum and shelter in Nepal and Tibet. In the end, Buddhism died away in India, the land of its birth. Thus, many causes were responsible for the gradual decline and fall of Buddhism in the land of her birth although it continued to flourish in countries beyond India for centuries. Even today, it has a large number of followers all over the world. |
→ Contribution of Buddhism
→ Contribution of Buddhism
| Cue Words | Notes |
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| What cultural, linguistic and artistic contributions did Buddhism leave in India? | Cattle Wealth, Rationalism, Languages, Universities and Art: With its emphasis on non-violence and the sanctity of animal life, Buddhism boosted the cattle wealth of the country. The earliest Buddhist text, *Suttanipata*, declares the cattle to be givers of food, beauty and happiness, and thus pleads for their protection. The brahmanical insistence on the sacredness of the cow and non-violence was apparently derived from Buddhist teachings. Buddhism created and developed a new awareness in the field of intellect and culture. The place of superstition was taken by logic and it promoted rationalism among people. Promotion of **Pali** and many local languages, such as **Kannada, Gujarati**, etc. The Buddhist monasteries developed as great centers of learning, and began to be called residential universities like those of **Nalanda** and **Vikramshila** in Bihar, **Valabhi** in Gujarat, **Taxila**, and **Nagarjuna Konda**. In the field of architecture and art, Buddhism takes the credit for: the first human statues to be worshipped; stone panels depicting the life of the Buddha at **Gaya** in Bihar and at **Sanchi** and **Bharhut** in Madhya Pradesh; cave architecture in the **Barabar hills** at Gaya and in western India around **Nasik**; art pieces of **Amravati** and **Nagarjunakonda**. |
→ Buddhist Architecture — Stupa, Chaitya and Vihara
→ Buddhist Architecture — Stupa, Chaitya and Vihara
| Cue Words | Notes |
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| How are Stupa, Chaitya and Vihara defined as Buddhist architectural forms? | Stupa Structure, Chaitya Hall and Monastery Remains: With Buddhist architecture was particularly associated the **Stupa**, a domical structure of brick or stone masonry. Shrines known as **Chaityas** with the votive Chaityas installed for worship and prayer, as also monasteries (**Viharas**, *Sangharamas*), were essential features of Buddhist religious establishments. The Stupa was a conventional representation of a funeral tumulus, evolved out of earthen funerary mound in which the relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monk are preserved. The Stupa at **Sanchi** comprises of an almost hemispherical dome (*anda*) flattened at the top, supported on a low circular base (*Medhi*). Over the dome is a square pavilion called *harmika* (box) enclosed by a balustrade surrounding the sacred parasol (*chatra*). *Pradaksinapatha* was the path for clockwise circumbulation surrounded by a fence built encircling the stupa. The whole structure is surrounded by a massive rail with four imposing gateways on the four sides. The chaitya shrine in its typical form was a long rectangular hall, apsidal at the rear end and divided into three sections by two rows of pillars along the length of the hall meeting at the back end. Rock cut chaitya shrines are at **Bhaja** near Poona (2nd century B.C.), **Kondane, Pitalkhora, Bedsa, Nasik, Kanheri, Ajanta, Karle** and other places in Western India. Fragmentary remains of many monasteries (*vihara*) have been excavated in the north as well as in the south. The monastery at **Nalanda** belongs to the fifth century A.D. and one at **Paharpur** (*Somapura Mahavihara*) was established towards the close of the 8th or the beginning of the 9th century. |
25. Similarities and Differences between Jainism and Buddhism
25. Similarities and Differences between Jainism and Buddhism
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| Where do Jainism and Buddhism converge as sramana movements? | Similarities — Shared Roots and Parallel Ethics: Both Jainism and Buddhism originally derived their ideas from the Upanishads and both had a common background of Aryan culture. Both of them were products of the prevailing pessimistic spirit of the time. Both appeared as revolts against orthodox Brahmanical Hinduism. Both Buddhism and Jainism sprang in Eastern India where the Aryan culture had no sweeping influence. Although Aryanism had penetrated in Eastern India, yet some latent aspect of pre-Aryan culture remained in the region. They contributed to the rise of the revolutionary anti-Brahmanical creeds of Buddhism and Jainism in Eastern India. In respect of their basic philosophical concepts, Buddhism and Jainism were indebted to the **Sankhya** philosophy. The Buddhists and Jainas equally believe that the world is full of misery, that the object of religion is to deliver the soul from the miseries of this world by eliminating rebirth. This concept of the Jainas and the Buddhists that world is a misery and that man is subjected to the result of *Karma* was borrowed from the Upanishads and the Sankhya philosophy. Both **Mahavira** and **Buddha** rejected the authority of the Vedas and the efficacy of Vedic rites. Both denied the existence of God and upheld ascetic life, moral and ethical codes. Both the teachers upheld non-violence as means of salvation. Both dismissed caste system. Jainism and Buddhism had largest number of followers among the mercantile class. Both Mahavira and Buddha preached their doctrines in the language of the people. |
| How do Jainism and Buddhism diverge on soul, asceticism, Ahimsa and world spread? | Differences — Antiquity, Soul, Penance and Later Fate: Jainism was an ancient creed which existed before the advent of Mahavira. There were at least 23 Tirthankaras before Mahavira. The latter was the last of the Tirthankaras. Mahavira did not found any new religion. He merely introduced certain reforms in Jainism. But Buddhism was entirely a new creed. It had no existence before Buddha. The Jaina conception of soul differed from that of the Buddhists. The Jainas ascribe life to plants, stone and water, which the Buddhists reject. Their concept of *Jiva* (soul) and *Ajiva* (matter) is entirely different from the Buddhist concept of soul. The Jainas practice rigorous asceticism and self-mortification. Mahavira himself practiced tremendous physical hardships to realize the Truth. He advised his followers to starve and undergo physical suffering. But Buddha was opposed to extreme penance and privations. He advised a “Middle Path”. While Mahavira advised his followers to discard garments, Buddha denounced that practice. The Jainas practice extreme form of *Ahimsha* or non-violence. They do not tolerate the killing of insects and germs even. They ascribe life to inanimate objects like stone, wood etc. The Buddhists although believe in *Ahimsa*, do not observe it in such an extreme form. Jainism seeks to destroy the evil effects of *Karma* by rigorous penance, self-mortification and non-violence. They do not accept the Buddhist concept of *Nirvana*. The Buddhists believe that the evil effects of *Karma* cannot be extinguished in this life. They rather try to destroy the vicious impulses that produce the *Karma*. In their attitude towards Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism differ. The Jainas do not entirely reject the caste system and do not entirely sever contacts with Hinduism. They are more accommodating to Hinduism than the Buddhists and employ Brahmanical priests for worship. But Buddhism has completely cut itself off from Hinduism and rejects caste system in any form. In the Buddhist literature there is severe criticism of the Jaina doctrines which pre-supposes a great rivalry between both the creeds. In their later developments, while Buddhism became a world religion, Jainism had little progress beyond India. The Buddhists displayed a great missionary zeal. But the Jainas never attempted to get large number of converts in and outside India. While Buddhism has practically vanished from India, Jainism is still a strong living faith having influence upon millions of Indians. Jainism had a great centre at Mathura and Ujjaini. Large numbers of Jaina inscriptions have been found at these places. |
UPSC Relevance
UPSC Relevance
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| What GS-1 angles does the Mahajanapada–Magadha–invasion–Buddhism complex supply for UPSC Mains? | Key Angles UPSC Targets:
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Mains Perspective
Mains Perspective
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| Evaluate the claim that ancient Indian ganas were democratic republics. | Gana as Oligarchy, Not Mass Democracy: Nationalist historiography exaggerated democratic features of the *ganas* to refute Western claims of perennial despotism in India. Source evidence shows power vested in heads of leading Kshatriya families meeting in the *santhagara*, with no single hereditary monarch but also no universal franchise. Large assemblies (7707 *rajas* in the *Ekapana Jataka*; 168,000 in the *Mahavastu*) met typically once a year, while a smaller council (nine men among Lichchhavis) handled daily administration. Women, barbers such as Upali, metal-smiths such as Chunda, farmers, artisans, labourers and slaves were excluded from political participation. The system was a compromise between assembly government and oligarchy within the assembly — closer to aristocratic republic than modern democracy, and distinct again from a constitutional ‘republic’ defined solely by rule of law. |
| Analyse the structural contrast between monarchical rajyas and gana-sanghas in the sixth century B.C. | Two Polities, Two Geographies: Monarchies concentrated sovereign power, compulsory taxes (*bali*, *bhaga*, *kara*, *sulka*), standing armies under the *sena nayaka*, and Brahmana–Kshatriya mutual support on the fertile Gangetic plains (Kasi, Kosala, Magadha among the foremost). *Gana-sanghas* diffused power among ruling *kshatriya rajakula*, rejected *varna* privilege for Brahmanas, owned land as clan property worked by *dasa karmakara*, and clustered in smaller foothill and north-western zones where representation in assemblies remained practicable. Their resilience until mid-first millennium A.D. coexists with progressive weakening from the Mauryan period as monarchical empire-building and Kautilyan strategies of dissension exploited the discussion-based weakness of the *ganas*. |
| Explain Magadha’s material and dynastic path to imperial supremacy. | Geography, Iron, Rivers and Three Dynasties: Magadha combined mainland-route control, five-hilled Rajgir and *Jaladurga* Pataliputra (Ganga–Son–Gandak–Ghagra), Rajgir iron and copper, war elephants, multi-crop alluvium, and the port of Champa into a unique power package. Bimbisara’s Anga annexation and marriage alliances (Kosala Devi–Kashi dowry; Chellana–Lichchhavi; Kshema–Madra) set the base; Ajatashatru’s Vassakara strategy split the Vajjis, new war engines and fortification of Patali Grama secured Gangetic hegemony; Shishunaga ended the century-long Avanti rivalry and Kalashoka hosted the Second Buddhist Council; Mahapadma Nanda as *Ekrat* (“destroyer of all the Kshatriyas”) extended empire to Kalinga (Hathigumpha) and the Deccan, while Dhana Nanda’s vast army deterred Alexander yet financial extortion prepared the Chandragupta–Kautilya revolution. The greatness of the Maurya Age rested on Nanda achievements. |
| Assess Second Urbanisation as a product of surplus, iron and institutional control. | Not Iron Alone: Sixth-century Gangetic urbanisation rested on wet-rice multi-cropping, iron axes and ploughshares, and — crucially — a small group’s capacity to collect, control and redistribute surplus as revenue while disciplining farmers and craftsmen. Megalithic societies with iron and surplus remaining pre-urban prove that technology without fiscal-political control does not yield towns or states. Towns arose as administrative capitals, market nodes (barter then coin), religious centres, or multi-function hubs; settlement hierarchy ran *grama*–*nigama*/*pulabhedana*–*nagara*–*mahanagara*; NBPW luxury ceramics, embankments and fortifications mark the archaeological face of this re-urbanisation, similar in craft and weights to Harappa yet distinct in staple crops and riverine vulnerability without Harappan-style brick flood walls. |
| Discuss the role of Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha in economic and cultural integration. | Highways of Goods and Ideas: *Uttarapatha* linked Afghanistan and Bactria through the Gangetic plain to Tamralipti, carried horses, lapis, silver, shell and semi-precious stones, and supported Kamboja–Gandhara commerce as far as Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. *Dakshinapatha* joined Pataliputra–Kaushambi to Pratishthana and the western coast, moving Vindhyan metals northward and caravans of a thousand carts under *kammika* taxation and *rajabhata* protection. Their crossing at Sarnath made that site a node of exchange of goods and eastern philosophies — the setting of the Buddha’s first sermon — while the same network elevated *vanijja* as a high occupation and artisans-merchants into guild-organised urban elites. |
| Evaluate punch-marked coinage as a historical source for the Mahajanapada–Maurya transition. | Anonymous Metal and State Power: Punch-marked *Karshapanas*/*Panas* of standard silver weight and irregular cut-bar form, without legend, are attributed to Janapadas by symbol sets (e.g. humped bull of Saurashtra; Swastika of Dakshin Panchala; multiple symbols of Magadha) and hoard geography. They answer the inadequacy of barter for fractional exchange, coexist with residual barter, and continue under the Mauryas with average 50–54 grains of silver, *Arthasastra* denominations largely unrepresented in finds except the *Karshapana*, and specialised mint officers (*Lakshanadhyaksha*, *Roopdarshak*). The series thus documents monetisation of the Second Urbanisation and the progressive state monopolisation of coin issue into the imperial period, before Greco-Bactrian influence replaced punching with cast die-struck coinage in the north-west. |
| Analyse the causes of the rise of heterodox sects in the sixth century B.C. | Material Base of *Sramana* Reform: Heterodoxy is not a free-floating intellectual fashion but the religious face of second-urbanisation society. *Varna* tension placed ruling Kshatriyas against ritualistic Brahmana monopoly of birth privilege — both Buddha and Mahavira were Kshatriyas. Iron-plough agriculture made cattle productive capital, so indiscriminate Vedic cattle-killing became economically irrational; *Ahimsa* thus recruited peasants. Vaisyas, ranked third yet enriched by trade, sought status elevation through religions that patronised commerce. Expensive Later Vedic sacrifice and highly philosophical Upanishads left the common people without a short, intelligible path to salvation in a known language — a gap filled by Prakrit/*Ardhamagadhi* preaching and practical lay codes. Property inequality also fed yearning for an ascetic ideal that dispensed with new forms of wealth. |
| Examine the doctrinal structure of Jainism as reformulated by Mahavira. | From Four Vows to Triratna, Five Knowledges and Multi-Sided Reality: Mahavira built on Parshvanatha’s historical four vows (*ahimsa*, *satya*, *asateya*, *aparigraha*) by adding *brahmacharya* and intensifying austerity (discarding clothes). Liberation is framed as *triratna* — *Samyak darshana*, *Samyak jnana*, *Samyak charitra* — with knowledge graded into five (*Mati*, *Srut*, *Avadhi*, *Man Prayaya*, *Kewalya*). Ontologically, eternal *Jiva*/*Ajiva* reality without a Creator unfolds in *utsarpini*–*avasarpini* cycles; ethically, *Ahimsa* is absolute and monastic life essential because only long mortification frees the soul from *karma-pudgala*. Epistemologically, *Anekantavada* (infinite aspects of reality), *Syadvada* with *Saptabhangi*, and *Nayavada* (seven viewpoints) institutionalise multi-sided, non-absolute statement — a distinctive Jaina contribution often compared with Samkhya. Varna is retained as karmic consequence rather than condemned, which helps explain both royal patronage and limited mass differentiation from Brahmanism. |
| Account for the Digambara–Svetambara schism and its institutional consequences. | Famine, Migration and Canonical Split: A twelve-year Magadha famine two centuries after Mahavira drove Bhadrabahu (with Chandragupta Maurya) south while Sthulabahu’s followers remained and altered codes of conduct, producing Digambaras (sky-clad, southern) and Svetambaras (white-clad, Magadhan). The First Council at Pataliputra (early 3rd c. B.C.) under Sthulabahu compiled 12 *Angas* to replace lost 14 *Purvas*, but Digambaras boycotted; the Second Council at Valabhi (5th c. A.D.) under Devardhi Kshamasramana finalised 12 *Angas* and 12 *Upangas* for Svetambaras. Later Samaiyas and Terapantis renounced idol worship. Parallel decline narratives stress the same factionalism (Bhadrabahu vs Sitalabahu naming) as a cause of weakened expansion — institutional division thus both preserved alternative canons and curtailed unified missionary power. |
| Evaluate the contribution and decline of Jainism in Indian history. | Language, Ahimsa, Politics, Trade, Art — and Seven Decline Axes: Contribution spans Prakrit/*Ardha-magadhi* enrichment and regional languages (Shauraseni → Marathi; Apabhramsha grammar); the ethic of non-violence toward living and non-living; political counsel (Megasthenes on forest *Sramanas*; Jaina *acharyas* as founders of Ganga and Hoyasala kingdoms); merchant brotherhood and guild formation; charitable caves and gifts; and a distinctive art legacy from Lohanipura and Kankali Mathura through Ellora, Ranakpur, Dilwara marble, the 56.5-foot Gomatesvara of `982 A.D.`, Chittor tower, and Western Indian manuscript painting — nearly 90% of temples as single wealthy gifts. Decline is multi-causal: lost royal tempo after Bimbisara–Kharavela as Asoka–Kanishka–Harsha boosted Buddhism; missionary fatigue; severity versus Buddhist middle path; unintelligible *Jiva*/*Pudgala*/*Syadvada* concepts; Digambara–Svetambara factionalism; Buddhist competition; and Hindu revival under Nimbarka, Ramanuja and Sankaracharya with Vaisnava–Saiva–Sakta growth. |
| Compare the six unorthodox teachers of the Buddhist scriptures as a map of sramana thought. | From Non-Action to Scepticism: Buddhist texts organise the non-Jain non-Buddhist field around six leaders rather than many formal *sanghas*. **Purana Kassapo**’s *Akiriyavada* abolishes moral desert; **Makkhali Gosala**’s Ajivika *Niyati* freezes transmigration under destiny and denies *karma*; **Ajita Kesakambalin** annihilates the person at death (complete materialism); **Pakudha Kachchayana** freezes being in atomist permanence that excludes responsibility (“What is cannot be destroyed: out of Nothing emerges Nothing”); **Nigantha Nataputta** is Mahavira himself; **Sanjay Belatthaputta** denies certain knowledge. Together with Jainism’s multi-sided epistemology they define the sixth-century debate space from fatalism through materialism and atomism to scepticism — the same spectrum already flagged from *Ucchedavada* to Charvaka in the heterodox opening. |
| Evaluate Iranian and Macedonian invasions as catalysts rather than conquests of India. | Exposed Frontier, Opened Routes, Fixed Chronology: Achaemenid hold from Cyrus’s Gandhara to Darius’s twentieth satrapy (360 talents gold dust; Bahistan and Susa teak) did not remake Indian politics but exposed north-western defence weakness, modelled *satrapa* administration for later Sakas and Kushanas, introduced Aramaic-derived *Kharosthi* (right to left), refined coin techniques, and inspired Ashokan pillar polish and rock proclamations — while careful comparison shows Mauryan freestanding monolithic shafts and inverted-lotus capitals remain aesthetically and technically distinct from Persepolitan multi-segment fluted columns. Alexander’s nineteen-month border campaign (`326 B.C.`) never faced the Nanda core; Ambhi’s surrender and Porus’s bravery at Hydaspes, followed by Beas mutiny, left indirect but deep results: destruction of north-western polities eased Chandragupta’s work; four land and one sea routes and Greek settlements expanded Indo-West commerce; and the fixed date, with Megasthenes, Arrian, Nearchus and related accounts, supplies the chronological spine Indian Puranas lack. Seleucus’s later cession to Chandragupta inverted the myth of Western military superiority. |
| Analyse Buddhism’s doctrinal Middle Path and institutional schisms for UPSC Mains. | From Four Truths to Three Vehicles: Buddha’s practical reform — Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path as *madhyama pratipad* between indulgence and mortification, *Pratityasamutpada*, and *Anatta*/*Anicca*/*Dukka* with five *Skandhas* — rejected Vedic authority and soul-permanent *atman* while retaining *Karma* as the force of *samsara*. The *Sangha*’s democratic *Jnapati*–*salaka* procedures and open membership (with exclusions for debtors, criminals, royal servants) institutionalised the teaching. Four Councils chart the canon and schism: Rajgir settled *Sutta* and *Vinaya*; Vaishali split Sthaviravadins from Mahasanghikas; Pataliputra under Asoka–Moggaliputta Tissa added *Abhidhamma* as *Tripitaka* and launched missions; Kashmir under Kanishka–Vasumitra–Asvaghosha authorised Sanskrit Mahayana against Hinayana. Theravada’s Arhat goal, Mahayana’s universal Buddhahood and Bodhisattva vows, and Vajrayana’s tantric acceleration map the three vehicles; Pali Hinayana canon versus Sanskrit *Vaipulya Sutras* (*Prajna-Paramita*, *Saddharma-Pundarika*, etc.) record the literary split. Decline followed corruption of *Sangha*, Hindu reform and Sankara–Kumarila challenge, Sanskrit’s loss of mass intelligibility, Pushyamitra and Gupta Brahmanical patronage, Huna and Muslim violence, and Rajput militarism — even as contribution in cattle protection, Pali/Prakrit, universities, Stupa–Chaitya–Vihara architecture and first anthropomorphic worship remained permanent. |