Western Philosophy: The Duty & Result
Western ethical thought is structured around the tension between deontology (duty-based ethics focusing on means) and teleology/utilitarianism (consequence-based ethics focusing on ends), alongside virtue ethics (character-centric) and social contract theories (justice and governance).
1. Ancient Greek Thinkers
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| Definition & Philosophical Scope | - Western ethical systems balancing Deontology (duty-based means), Utilitarianism (consequence-based ends), Virtue Ethics (character), and Social Contract Theory |
| Greek Virtue Ethics | - Socrates: Virtue is knowledge; unexamined life is not worth living; wrongdoing stems from moral ignorance - Plato: Justice as soul harmony between Reason (Wisdom), Spirit (Courage), and Appetite (Temperance); rule of Philosopher Kings - Aristotle Golden Mean: virtue as the disposition choosing the mean path between excess and deficiency (Courage between Cowardice and Rashness) |
| Key Quotes | - Socrates: An unexamined life is not worth living |
| Epicurus & Stoicism (Additional Greek Traditions) | - Epicurus: true happiness (ataraxia) lies in simple pleasures, absence of pain, and freedom from fear, not excess indulgence - Stoics (Zeno, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius): virtue lies in accepting what is not in one's control and acting rightly in what is — root of the modern "resilience" and duty-focused administrative calm |
2. Enlightenment & Modern Thinkers
| Cue Words | Notes |
|---|---|
| Kantian Deontology | - Formula of Universal Law: acting solely on maxims one can rationally will to become universal law - Formula of Humanity (Ends-in-Themselves): treating human beings as intrinsic moral ends and never merely as instrumental means |
| Utilitarianism & Liberty | - Jeremy Bentham Quantitative Hedonism: greatest happiness of the greatest number calculated via the Felicific Calculus - John Stuart Mill Qualitative Hedonism & Harm Principle: intellectual vs physical pleasures and restricting state power only to prevent harm |
| Social Contract & Rawlsian Justice | - Hobbes & Locke: state of nature necessity and sovereign trust protecting natural rights to Life, Liberty, and Property - John Rawls Justice as Fairness: Veil of Ignorance (unbiased policy design) and Difference Principle (maximizing benefit for least advantaged) |
| Key Quotes | - Immanuel Kant: The starry heavens above me and the moral law within me - John Rawls: Justice is the first virtue of social institutions |
| Conclusion | - Success lies in deploying Kantian Deontology for human dignity and Rawlsian Justice for **"Equitable Welfare Policy Formulation"** |
| Additional Modern Thinkers | - Jean-Jacques Rousseau: "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains" — General Will as the legitimate basis of political authority and the social contract - Amartya Sen (Capability Approach): justice measured by the real freedoms/capabilities people have to achieve well-being, not merely resource distribution — influential in India's human development discourse |