Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1300 BCE)

Overview


IVC Overview	Represented first urban phase in Indian subcontinent. Mature Harappan phase (2600–1900 BCE) featured grid-pattern cities, baked bricks, advanced drainage, and extensive trade. Declined ~1900 BCE due to ecological factors.

1. Chronology & Geographical Extension


Harappan Phases	Early (3300–2600 BCE): Proto-urban (Amri, Kot Diji). Mature (2600–1900 BCE): Urban peak (Harappa, Mohenjo-daro). Late (1900–1300 BCE): De-urbanisation. "Indus Civilization" coined by John Marshall.
Geographical Boundaries	Westernmost: Sutkagendor (Dasht River, Pak-Iran border). Northernmost: Manda (Chenab, J&K). Easternmost: Alamgirpur (Hindon, UP). Southernmost: Daimabad (Maharashtra).

2. Town Planning & Urban Features


City Layout & Materials	City division: Lower Town (residential) & Citadel (administrative/rituals). Grid pattern with interlocking baked bricks (ratio 1:2:4). Private sanitation with no street-facing windows.
Drainage & Water Structures	Covered drains with cesspits. Granaries with raised platforms & air ducts. Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro) with bitumen waterproofing. Reservoirs at Dholavira.

3. Society, Religion & Economy


Society & Politics	Moderate hierarchy; no rigid classes, no kings, no standing armies. Women represented in figurines and bronze "Dancing Girl". Primary burials dominant. Cinnabar cosmetics.
Religion & Beliefs	Secular (no temples found). Deities: Mother Goddess & Proto-Shiva (Pashupati). Peepal tree, animal, Yoni-phallic worship. Fire altars at Kalibangan & Lothal.
Agriculture & Trade	Crops: Wheat, barley, cotton (Mehrgarh), rice (Lothal, Rangpur). Earliest ploughed field at Kalibangan. Zebu cattle, buffalo. Barter trade with Mesopotamia (Meluha), Magan, Dilmun. Binary/decimal weights.
Raw Material Imports	Lapis Lazuli (Shortughai), Carnelian (Lothal), Steatite (South Rajasthan), Copper (Khetri/Oman), Gold (Kolar), Silver (Ajmer/Afghanistan).

4. Key IVC Sites & Findings


Mohenjo-daro & Harappa	Mohenjo-daro: Great Bath, Great Granary, Pashupati Seal, Bronze Dancing Girl, Bearded Priest. Harappa: 6 granaries in row, Virgin-Goddess seal, Cemetery-H.
Dholavira & Lothal	Dholavira: 3-part city division, water reservoirs, large signboard. Lothal: Tidal dockyard, ivory scale, rice evidence, bead factory.
Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi & Others	Kalibangan: Earliest ploughed field, fire altars, no lower town drainage. Rakhigarhi: Largest site in India. Surkotada: Horse remains (debated). Chanhudaro: Bead factory, only city without citadel.

5. Art, Script & Decline Theories


Art & Script	Dancing Girl (bronze lost-wax technique), Bearded Priest (steatite), Male Torso (red sandstone). Script: Undeciphered pictographic, Boustrophedon method (L-R, R-L).
Decline Theories	Aryan Invasion (Wheeler); Ecological Disturbance (Fairchild); Drying of Saraswati (D.P. Agrawal); Climate Change/weak monsoons (Bhirrana data).

UPSC High-Yield Recall & Exam Traps


Dancing Girl Material	Made of Bronze using lost-wax process (not carnelian or clay).
Dholavira Water Management	Famous for sophisticated water reservoirs and dams (UNESCO WHS).
Sohgaura Non-Harappan Trap	Sohgaura is a Mauryan copper plate site (not IVC).
Iron Exclusion	IVC had no knowledge of iron (bronze and copper age culture).

UPSC Prelims 2026 Questions & Explanations


Question 18 (Harappan Town Findings 2026)	Question: Inferences from spindle whorls, standardized weights, and large brick houses: 1. Spindle whorls indicate household thread spinning. 2. Graduated scales indicate scientific measurement knowledge. 3. Large houses indicate common property system. Answer: (a) 1 and 2 only (Large houses indicate social differentiation, not common property).

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