Post-Gupta Period & Regional Kingdoms (550–750 CE)

📊 High-Yield Overview & Key Kingdoms

Cue Words	Notes
Shift of Capital	Power center shifted from Pataliputra to Kannauj (Mahodaya Sri) in North India.
Harshavardhana (606–647 CE)	Vardhana ruler based at Kannauj; wrote 3 plays (Priyadarsika, Ratnavali, Nagananda); court poet Banabhatta wrote Harshacharita & Kadambari.
Battle of Narmada River	Harsha's southward expansion stopped by Chalukya king Pulakesin II (documented in Aihole Inscription by Ravikirti).

1. CHALUKYAS OF VATAPI & PALLAVAS OF KANCHI

Cue Words	Notes
Pulakesin II (609–642 CE)	Greatest Vatapi Chalukya king; defeated Harsha; received Persian envoy Khusrau II; killed by Pallava king Narasimhavarman I.
Vesara Temple Architecture	Chalukyan hybrid style blending Nagara & Dravida features; Aihole ("Cradle of Temple Architecture") & UNESCO site Pattadakal (Virupaksha temple).
Narasimhavarman I 'Mamalla'	Greatest Pallava ruler; defeated Pulakesin II and assumed title Vatapikonda; built monolithic Pancha Rathas & open-air relief Arjuna's Penance at Mahabalipuram.
Shore Temple & Kanchi Kailasanatha	Structural Dravida temples constructed under Pallava king Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha).

🧭 Harsha's Succession & Hiuen Tsang's Account

• Succession: Prabhakaravardhana (father, founder's line at Thaneshwar) → Rajyavardhana (elder brother, killed by Shashanka of Gauda) → Harshavardhana ascended in 606 CE and shifted the capital to Kannauj.
• Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang): Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who visited Harsha's court; recorded his attendance at the Kannauj assembly (promoting Mahayana Buddhism) and the quinquennial charity assembly at Prayag (Prayaga Moksha Parishad).
• Land Grants: Harsha's administration shows early feudal tendencies — officials paid partly through land grants rather than cash salaries.

🖼️ Supplemental Asset Directory

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Supplemental Asset Directory

• Post-Gupta Kingdoms Map:

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Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra (11th–14th Century A.D.)

Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra (11th–14th Century A.D.)

Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra
Cue Words	Notes
Who founded the Hoysalas, and what were their capital and location?	Nripakama II / Sala; Halebid (Dwarsamudram); AP, Karnataka: Founder: Nripakama II / Sala Capital: Halebid (Dwarsamudram) Location: AP, Karnataka
What did Vinayaditya and Vishnuvardhana achieve?	Mysore–Sosavir; 1st Distinguished Ruler; Dwarasamudra; Gangavadi: Vinayaditya (1006–1022 A.D.): Carved out a territory of Mysore with Sosavir as capital. Vishnuvardhana (1108–1152 A.D.): 1st distinguished ruler of Vinayaditya’s family. Shifted capital to Dwarasamudra. Captured Gangavadi from Kulothunga Chola.
What were the achievements of Vira Ballala II and Narasimhan II?	Billama V; Yadava Singhana; Pandya; Rajaraja-III; Rameshwaram Pillar: Vira Ballala II (1173–1220 A.D.): Defeated Billama V of the Yadava Dynasty. Narasimhan II (1220–1235 A.D.): Lost territory between Krishna and Tungabhadra to a Yadava ruler, Singhana. Defeated Maravarman Sundara Pandya and restored Rajaraja-III to the Chola throne. Erected the pillar of victory at Rameshwaram.
Who were Ballala III and Ballala IV, and how did the dynasty end?	Malik Kafur; Madurai Sultans 1342; Last Ruler: Ballala III (1291–1342 A.D.): Last great ruler of this dynasty; defeated by Malik Kafur. He fell victim to the Sultans of Madurai in 1342 A.D. Ballala IV: Last ruler.
What were the contributions of the Hoysalas?	Kannada Literature; Hoyasala Architecture (Sringeri, Halebid): Encouraged Kannada literature. Hoyasala Architecture (Sringeri, Halebid).

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Rashtrakuta (8th Century to 10th Century A.D.)

Rashtrakuta (8th Century to 10th Century A.D.)

Rashtrakuta Dynasty
Cue Words	Notes
What was the origin of the Rashtrakutas?	Descendants of Satyaki; Kannada Origin; Kannada Mother Tongue: Considered themselves as descendants of Satyaki. Origin: Kannada origin. Mother tongue: Kannada.
Who was Dantivarman / Dantidurga (735–756 A.D.) and what did he achieve?	Founder; Godavari–Vima; Hiranyagarbha; Kirtivarma: Founder; occupied all territories between the Godavari and Vima. Said to have conquered Kalinga, Kosala, Kanchi, Srisril, Malava, Lata, etc. Occupied Maharashtra by defeating Chalukya King Kirtivarma. 1st to perform Hiranyagarbha practice — a practice to become Kshatriya.
What did Krishna I (756–774 A.D.) achieve, especially at Ellora?	Kailash Temple Ellora; Vengi; Western Ganga: Succeeded Dantidurga and built the Kailash Temple at Ellora. Defeated Vishnuvardhana of Vengi and the Western Ganga king of Mysore.
Who were Govinda II, Dhruva, and Govinda III?	Son of Krishna I; Vatsyaraja–Dharmapala–Pallavas; Nagabhatta II: Govinda II (774–780 A.D.): Son of Krishna I; succeeded him. Dhruva (780–793 A.D.): Defeated Vatsyaraja (Gurjara-Pratihara), Pallavas, and Dharmapala (Pala Dynasty). Govinda III (793–814 A.D.): Defeated the great Gurjara King Nagabhatta II. Pala King Dharmapala sought the help of Govinda III. Areas: Vindhyas and Malava (north) and Tungabhadra (south).
Why is Amoghavarsha I (814–878 A.D.) considered the greatest Rashtrakuta king?	Manyakheta; Broach; Jainism–Jinasena; Suleman’s Four Kings: Greatest king of the Rashtrakutas. New capital: Manyakheta (Malkhed, Karnataka). Port: Broach. Religion: Converted into Jainism by Jinasena, a Jaina monk. Suleman (Arab merchant): Discussed 4 Kings of the world in his account — Amoghavarsha-I, Caliph of Baghdad, King of Constantinople, Emperor of China.
Who were the later Rashtrakuta rulers from Krishna II to Karka?	Mahipala Deposed; Chola Defeat; Tailapa of Kalyani: Krishna II (878–914 A.D.): Son of Amoghavarsha; succeeded the throne. Indra III (914–929 A.D.): Defeated and deposed Mahipala. Krishna III (939–967 A.D.): Defeated Tamil kings of the Chola kingdom. Karka (972–973 A.D.): Defeated by Taila or Tailapa, the Chalukya king of Kalyani.
How was Rashtrakuta administration organised?	Rashtras → Vishayas → Bhukti: Rashtras (provinces) — headed by Rashtrapatis. Divided into Vishayas (districts) — governed by vishayapatis. Subdivision into bhukti — headed by bhogapatis.
What literature did the Rashtrakutas patronise?	Sanskrit Patronage; Beginning of Kannada Literature: Patronized Sanskrit literature and the beginning of Kannada literature. Trivikrama Bhatta: Nalachampu. Halayudha: Kavirahasya. Jinasena: Parsvabhudaya (biography). Trishashthilkshana Mahapurana (2 parts — Adi-Puran by Acharya Jinasena and Uttara Purana by Gunabhadra). Sakatayana: Amogavritti (a grammar work). Viracharya: Ganitasaram (Maths). Amogavarsha: Kavirajamarga — first poetic work in Kannada language. Pampa (Greatest Kannada poet): Vikramasenavijaya. Ponna (Kannada): Santipurana.
What were the major art and culture contributions — Ellora and Elephanta?	Kailasanatha Ellora; Ravana Shaking Kailasa; Elephanta Trimurti: Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora: Central face of the plinth has imposing figures of elephants and lions which give an impression that the entire structure rests on their back. Sculpture of Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa. Elephanta (original name: Sripuri, Mumbai): Portuguese named it Elephanta after seeing the Elephant Sculpture. Trimurti of Shiva. Dwar palakas.

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Kalachuri (Chedi) of Tripuri (9th–11th Century) — Jabalpur

Kalachuri (Chedi) of Tripuri (9th–11th Century) — Jabalpur

Kalachuri (Chedi) of Tripuri
Cue Words	Notes
Where were the Kalachuris of Tripuri based, and what did the founder achieve?	Jabalpur; Northern Konkan; Helped Krishna II: Region: Tripuri (Jabalpur); 9th–11th Century. Founder: Invaded northern Konkan and helped Krishna II against the eastern Chalukyas and Pratiharas.
Who was Yuvraja (915–945 CE) and which literary work is linked to him?	Rajasekara; Vidya Salabhanjika: Famous poet Rajasekara wrote a drama Vidya Salabhanjika dedicated to him.
What did Lakshmanaraja achieve (around 3rd quarter of the 10th century CE)?	Vangala; Somavamsi of South Kosala; Mulraja I: Defeated Vangala (south Bihar) and the Somavamsi king of south Kosala. Defeated the king of Solanki (Mulraja I, founder).
Why is Gangeya Deva (1019–1040 CE) called a great ruler?	Trikalingadhipati; Vikramaditya; No Ghaznavid Raids; Lakshmi Coin: Great Ruler. Titles: Trikalingadhipati (the lord of Trikalinga), Vikramaditya. Kingdom did not face any raids from the Ghaznavids. Introduced a coin: 4-armed Lakshmi seated cross-legged on the lotus, holding a lotus in the upper two hands, with inscriptions in the Nagari script “Shrimad-Ga/ngeyade/va” on the reverse side.
Who was known as Karna, and what did Yashkarna and Vijayasimha achieve?	Pallavas–Pandyas–Kungas–Someshwara I; Last Ruler; Trailokyavarman: Known as Karna: Defeated the Pallavas, Pandyas (south), kungas, and Someshwara I. Yashkarna (1073–1125 CE). Vijayasimha (1177–1211 CE): Last ruler of the dynasty. Trailokyavarman (Chandella) captured nearly the whole of the Kalachuri kingdom including Baghelkhand and Dahala-mandala. Chedi possessions were also lost to the rising dynasties such as the Yadavas of Devagiri, the Ganpatis of Warangal, and the Vaghela Rajputs.

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Chandela of Jejakabhukti (Bundelkhand) (9th to 13th Century)

Chandela of Jejakabhukti (Bundelkhand) (9th to 13th Century)

Chandela of Jejakabhukti (Bundelkhand)
Cue Words	Notes
What was the origin and early status of the Chandelas?	Rajputs; Feudatories of Gurjara-Pratiharas; Chandratreya: Rajput Rulers and feudatories of the Kanyakubja Gurjara-Pratiharas (Kannauj). Rajputs of the Chandela dynasty are the descendants of the sage Chandratreya, son of the moon.
Who founded the dynasty and who were the early rulers?	Nanuka (835–845 CE); Khajuravatika; Vakpat–Jayashakti–Vijayashakti: Nanuka (835–845 CE): Founder; Ruler of Khajuravatika; feudatory of Gujara-Pratihara. Followed by: Vakpat, Jayashakti & Vijayashakti, Rahila, Shri Harshadev.
Who was the first independent king and who were the later rulers?	Yashovarman 925–950; Line of Successors; Viravarman 1315: Yashovarman (925–950 CE): 1st Independent King of Jijakhukti. Later rulers: Dhangadeva, Gandadeva, Vidyadhara, Vijaypala, Devavarman, Kirtivarman, Sallakshanavarman, Jayavarman, Prithivarman, Madanavarman, Yahsovarman-II. 1165–1203 CE: Independent king of Mahoba for sometime and later surrendered to the Delhi Sultanate. Then: Trailokya Varman, Bhojavarman, Hammiravarman, Viravarman — 1315 CE (reduced to local chief).
How did the Chandela dynasty decline?	Prithviraj Chauhan 1182–83; Parmardi; Kalinjar; Delhi Sultanate 1202–03: In year 1182–83, Prithviraj Chauhan invaded the Chandela kingdom and sacked Mahoba. King Parmardi took shelter in Kalinjar fort, but Prithviraj defeated Chandela forces there too; Parmardi shifted to Gaya. After sometime, he restored Chandela rule. In year 1202–03 CE, the Delhi Sultanate invaded the Chandela kingdom; Parmardi decided to surrender and pay tribute, but died before he would pay anything. After that, Chandelas continued to become weak and other new dynasties emerged — e.g. Bundela in Orchha, Baghels in Bandhavgarh region.
What were the art, culture, and strongholds of the Chandelas?	Kandariya Mahadeva; Chaturbhuja; Parsvanath; Ajaigarh–Kalinjar–Mahoba: Hindu and Jain Temples: Kandariya Mahadeva, Chaturbhuja, and Parsvanath. 3 other important Chandela strongholds: Jayapura-Durga (modern Ajaigarh), Kalanjara (modern Kalinjar), Mahotsava-Nagara (modern Mahoba).

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Hindu Shahi Dynasty

Hindu Shahi Dynasty

Hindu Shahi Dynasty
Cue Words	Notes
Who was Kallar and how is he identified in Rajatarangini?	Founder 890–895 CE; Lalliyashahi: Kallar (890–895 CE): As per Rajatarangini also known as Lalliyashahi. Founder of the dynasty.
Why is Jayapala (964–1001 CE) celebrated as a hero?	Defence against Turkish Rulers of Ghazni: Defended his empire from the Turkish rulers of Ghazni and is celebrated as a hero for his struggles.
What happened in the Battle of Chach under Anandapala (1001–1010 CE)?	Battle of Chach 1008; Mahmud Ghazni; Compared with Porus: Fought the “Battle of Chach (1008)” against Mahmud Ghazni. He lost the battle and his kingdom suffered huge financial and territorial losses. Some historians compare him with king Porus, who strongly opposed Alexander.
What did Trilochanpala (1010–1022 CE) achieve and how did he die?	Shivalik Hills; Indus to Upper Gangetic Valley; Assassinated 1022: Conquered region of Shivalik hills (under the rule of the Rai of Sharwa). Expanded his kingdom from the Indus River to the upper Gangetic valley. Assassinated by some of his own mutinous troops in 1022 CE.
Who was Bheempala and how did the Hindu Shahi dynasty decline?	Utabi; Battle of Nandana; Last Shahi Emperor; Mahmud of Ghazni: Bheempala (1022–1026 CE): Famous historian Utabi described him as fearless. As per some sources he seriously injured Muhammad bin Ibrahim (commander of Ghaznavid army) in the battle of Nandana. He was the last “Shahi” emperor. Decline: In the early 12th century, the kingdom was destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni.

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Development of Science and Technology in Ancient India

Development of Science and Technology in Ancient India

Science & Technology in Ancient India
Cue Words	Notes
What advances were made in ancient Indian astronomy?	Planetary Motion; Jyotishvedanga; Aryabhatta; Varahamihira: Astronomy has made great strides. Planetary motion became emphasised and closely monitored. Jyotishvedanga texts established systematic categories in astronomy. Aryabhatta: Wrote Aryabhattiya which includes movement of sun and moon. Varahamihira: Panch Siddhantika — summarizes 5 schools of astronomy. Discovered trigonometric equations. Moon’s movement around Earth and Earth’s around Sun was widely accepted.
What were the key developments in ancient Indian mathematics?	Harappa; Sulvasutras; Zero; Brahmagupta; Baudhayana; Bhaskaracharya: Harappa’s people were well-versed in measurement and geometry. Sulvasutras (same as Pythagoras) are thought to be the source of Indian mathematics. Apastamba (2nd CBC): Idea about acute, obtuse, and right angles. Zero was discovered in India and then flourished to Arab and other areas. Brahmagupta (598 to 668 CE) wrote Brahmasputa Siddhanta in 628 AD: 1st to mention ‘zero’ as a number. Described cyclic quadrilateral. Offered the solution to the general linear equation. Aryabhatta discovered algebra as well as area of a triangle. Surya Siddhanta and Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita from the 6th CAD. Baudhayana (800–740 BC): Discovered Pythagoras Theorem before Pythagoras (570 BC–490 BC). Bhaskaracharya (12th century AD): Wrote Siddhanta-Siromani → 4 parts: Lilavati (arithmetic), Bijaganita (algebra), Grahaganita (planetary mathematics), Goladhyaya.
What were the major contributions to medicine in ancient India?	Atharva Veda; Charaka; Sushruta; Jivaka; Nagarjuna: Atharva Veda: Magical charms to remove diseases like diarrhoea, leprosy, etc. Charakasamhita by Charak: Mentioned plants and herbs. Father of Indian Medicine. Was the first physician to introduce the concepts of digestion, metabolism, and immunity in his book. Sushrutasamhita by Sushruta (6th CBC): Reference to 121 surgical instruments. Discusses operation methods such as bone setting, cataract removal, etc. Repair of noses, ears and lips (Plastic Surgery) was there. Mentions 760 different plants. Different types of specialized surgical instruments were in common use by the 1st century AD. However, surgery suffered in the early mediaeval period because the act of dissecting with a razor was taken over by a barber. Jivaka (Bimbisara and Ajatsatru’s Time): Atreya taught him Ayurvedic medicine. He was Lord Buddha’s and Sangha’s personal Physician. Nagarjuna: An alchemist who worked extensively with mercury and promoted the use of chemical treatments. Referred to blood as rakta dhatu. Several specifically formulated compounds with medicinal properties are known as bhasmas.
What were other S&T contributions — metallurgy, engineering, and Wootz steel?	IVC Artefacts; Iron Pillar; Rock-Cut Architecture; Wootz Steel: Metallurgy: Examples — IVC artefacts, Iron pillar, Fresco Paintings, etc. Engineering, Technology and Architecture: IVC, Rock Cut Architecture. Indian iron Wootz (ootz) was best and always in demand to make swords in the whole world.

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Schools of Hindu Law (Mitakshara vs Dayabhaga)

Schools of Hindu Law (Mitakshara vs Dayabhaga)

Schools of Hindu Law
Cue Words	Notes
From which texts did Hindu law emanate?	Smritis — Manu, Yajnavalkya, Vishnu, Narad, Parashar, etc.: Hindu law really emanated from books called the Smritis, e.g. Manusmriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti, and the Smritis of Vishnu, Narad, Parashar, Apastamba, Vashisht, Gautam, etc.
How do Manusmriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti compare?	3000 vs 1000 Shlokas; Dayabhaga vs Mitakshara Commentaries: Manusmriti: Written early with 3000 Shlokas. Jumbled up. Commentary: Dayabhaga by Jimutvahan. A bit orthodox in approach. Yajnavalkya Smriti: Later with 1000 Shlokas. More organised. Commentary: Mitakshara by Vijnaneshwar. More liberal, particularly towards women. Geographical prevalence: Mitakshara prevailed over the whole of India except Bengal and Assam, while the Dayabhaga prevailed in Bengal and Assam.
What are the differences between Dayabhaga and Mitakshara in coparcenary (ownership by birth / death)?	Death vs Birth Right; Defined Shares vs Joint Tenancy: Dayabhaga: A son is entitled to his ancestral property only on the death of his father. The father is the absolute owner of his property in his lifetime. A son becomes coparcener by death of his father. This right is not available within the property of his father, grandfather or great-grandfather. Everyone’s share is defined. There is tenancy-in-common. One can transfer his share. As the shares are defined, one can easily partition with his share. Coparcenary property can be imposed by both male or female. Mitakshara: Right of a son by birth in the ancestral property equal to the interest of his father. A son becomes coparcener right after his birth. His right is applicable to the property of his grandfather and great-grandfather. Everyone is entitled to the property as a unit. Their shares are not defined. They have only the community of ownership. There is joint-tenancy. One cannot transfer his share to a third party. The joint-property can be partitioned. In that case, it will be partitioned as it was in case of the father. A female could not at all be a coparcener and was therefore not entitled to partition.
What are the differences between Dayabhaga and Mitakshara in succession?	Types of Property; Widow’s Right; Pinda vs Nearness of Blood: Dayabhaga: Property is of two types — (a) Joint, (b) Separate. The descendants inherit the property whatever type it is. If a coparcener dies, his widow will get the property in default of a close heir, but she cannot alienate. The order of heirs is decided by competence to offer Pinda and Sraddha to the deceased. Mitakshara: Property of a deceased Hindu is partitioned into two ways as the property is of two types — (a) Ancestor’s property, (b) Separate property. Ancestor’s property is partitioned in accordance with the Rules of Survivorship. But a Separate property is partitioned to the descendants. In default of a close heir, brother and immediate survivors inherit; the wife does not inherit. The order of heirs is decided by nearness of blood.

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Gupta Empire — Administration, Coinage & Society | Post-Gupta Dynasties | Harshavardhana | Imperial Cholas

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1. Gupta Empire — King and Central Administration

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1. Gupta Empire — King and Central Administration

Cue Words	Notes
What titles did the Gupta king hold as the central figure of administration?	Paramabhattaraka; Parama-daivata; Chakravarti; Paramesvara: The King was the central figure of administration. Titles: Paramabhattaraka, Parama-daivata, Chakravarti, Paramesvara.
How do the Allahabad Prasasti and Bhitari Pillar portray Gupta kings (Samudragupta, Skandagupta, Kumaragupta)?	Equal to Gods; Merciful Conqueror; True Path of Religion: Allahabad Prasasti of Samudragupta describes him as “equal to the gods: Dhanada (Kubera), Varuna (Sea-God), Indra and Antaka (Yama).” In the spirit of Smriti literature and of Kalidasa, Skandagupta in his Bhitari Pillar inscription is eulogized as one who “subdued the earth and became merciful to the conquered people, but he became neither proud nor arrogant though his glory was increasing day by day.” His father, Kumaragupta, “followed the true path of religion.”
List the council of ministers and other key officials under the Guptas.	Hereditary Offices; Mahanandanayaka; Mahapratihara; Pratihara; Dutakas; No Capital Punishment: Offices were perhaps hereditary. Mahanandanayaka (Chief Justice): assisted the King. Mahapratihara: Chief of palace guards. Pratihara: regulated ceremonies and granted permits for admission to royal presence. As per Fa-Hien: No capital punishment. Dutakas: task of implementing gifts.
Describe the Gupta army structure and military officers.	Paid in Cash; King Led Army; Sandhi-Vigrahika; Pilupati–Asvapati–Narapati; Ranabhandagarika: Army was paid in cash; at the time of war the King led his army. Sandhi-Vigrahika / Mahabaladhikrita: Minister in charge of peace and war. Pilupati: head of elephants. Asvapati: head of horses. Narapati: head of foot soldiers. Ranabhandagarika: Officer-in-charge for supply of offensive weapons.

2. Gupta Empire — Revenue Administration and Taxes

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2. Gupta Empire — Revenue Administration and Taxes

Cue Words	Notes
What were the main sources of state income and who kept accounts?	Land Revenue + Fines; Akshapataladhikrita; Pustapala: Land revenue and fines were sources of the state’s income. Gopasramin working as Akshapataladhikrita: accounts registers; recover royal dues. Pustapala: record-keeper.
List Gupta land, irrigation, transit, commercial and labour dues.	Udranga; Bhaga; Bedakhbog; Uparikara; Sulka; Visthi: Land Revenue: Udranga and bhaga. Irrigation Tax: Bedakhbog. Uparikara: levied on cloth, oil, etc. when taken from one city to another. Sulka: commercial tax paid by organization of traders; in case of non-payment → cancellation of right to trade and fine amounting to 8 times of the original Sulka. Visthi: King had a right to forced labour; also mentioned in Arthashastra and Junagadh / Jaunpur Inscription of Rudradaman-I (source notes this parallel).
What share of produce was taken as revenue according to literary sources?	Kamandaka Nitisara; Kalidasa; Narada-Smriti = 1/6 of Produce: Kamandaka in Nitisara suggests that a King should take special care of his treasury. Kalidasa and the author of the Narada-Smriti: revenue is 1/6 of produce.

3. Gupta Empire — Provinces, Districts and Villages

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3. Gupta Empire — Provinces, Districts and Villages

Cue Words	Notes
How was the Gupta Empire divided into Bhuktis and Vishayas?	Bhuktis → Uparikas; Vishayas → Ayuktaka/Vishayapati: Empire was divided into Bhuktis (Provinces): governed by Uparikas, directly appointed by the King. Vishayas (districts): headed by Ayuktaka / Vishayapati; generally appointment by governor, but not always.
What was the Adhikarana of a Vishayapati and what lay below the district?	Council of Four; Vithi; Patta; Bhumi; Pathaka; Petha: A Vishayapati administered the Vishaya with the help of the Adhikarana (council of 4 representatives): Nagarasresthi (head of city merchants) Sarthavaha (Caravan-leader) Prathamakulika (head of artisan) Prathama Kayastha (head of Kayastha) Vithi was part of Vishaya. Administrative units below district level included clusters of settlements known variously as vithi, patta, bhumi, pathaka, and petha.
How was village administration organised under the Guptas?	Astakuladhikarana; Gramapati; Grama-vriddhas: Astakuladhikarana: in north Bengal, headed by the Mahattara (village elder). Village’s headman: Gramapati. Grama-vriddhas: village disputes.

4. Gupta Empire — Society (Varna, Caste, Sati, Fa-Hien)

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4. Gupta Empire — Society (Varna, Caste, Sati, Fa-Hien)

Cue Words	Notes
Did the ideal Varna system hold, and what new social categories emerged?	Varna-Samkara; Jatis; Vratya Kshatriya; Apadharma; Brahmadeya/Agrahara; Antyajas: Ideal Varna System was not practiced; many Jatis (Caste — a Portuguese word, derived in the 14th Century) emerged due to Varna-Samkara (inter-marriage between varnas). Vratya Kshatriya (semi-Kshatriya): families of Greek and Scythian origin. Dharmasastras also speak of apadharma — conduct to be followed during periods of distress (take to professions and duties not assigned to them). Brahmadeyas, Agrahara: kings and officials gave land not only to individual and groups of Brahmanas to come and settle in remote areas. Antyajas (Untouchables): considered impure → outcasted like Chandalas.
What is the first epigraphic evidence of Sati in the Gupta period?	Eran Inscription of Bhanugupta: 1st epigraphic evidence of Sati practice: Eran Inscription of Bhanugupta.
What did Fa-Hien observe about society in the Gupta Empire?	Vegetarianism; Non-Violence; Caste; Slavery; Chandalas; Widow Remarriage Unfavourable; Devadasi; Multi-religious: Fa-Hien’s observations about the Gupta Empire: Vegetarianism Non-Violence Prevalence of caste Existence of slavery Presence of untouchability — Chandalas Remarriage of widow was unfavourable Prevalence of Devadasi system Multi-religious: Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism

5. Gupta Empire — Literature, Philosophy and Mathematics (Society & Culture)

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5. Gupta Empire — Literature, Philosophy and Mathematics

Cue Words	Notes
List Kalidasa’s major works of the Gupta period.	Abhijnanashakuntala; Vikramorvashi; Raghuvamsha; Malavikagnimitra; Kumarasambhava; Meghaduta: Kalidasa: Classical Sanskrit writer; greatest poet and dramatist of the Gupta Period. Works: Abhijnanashakuntala Vikramorvashi Raghuvamsha (Poems) Malavikagnimitra Kumarasambhava Meghaduta (Poems)
What did Vishakhadatta and Shudraka write?	Mudrarakshasa; Devi Chandraguptam; Mrichchhakatika; Vinavasavadatta; Abhana; Padmaprabhritaka: Vishakhadatta: Mudrarakshasa: focus on Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya Devi Chandraguptam: story of Chandragupta II Shudraka (king as well as poet): Mrichchhakatika [story of Charudatta (merchant) and Vasantasena (Courtesan)] Vinavasavadatta Abhana (short one-act monologue) Padmaprabhritaka
Name other major poets and their works of this cultural milieu.	Bhasa; Bharavi; Bhatti; Magha; Dandin; Bhartrihari; Ishwar Krishna: Bhasa: wrote 13 plays; famous one is Swapnavasavadattam. Bharavi: Kiratarjuniya — Sanskrit Kavya about the conversation of Shiva and Arjuna. Bhatti: Bhattikavya, also known as Ravanavadha. Magha: Sisupala (7th century AD). Dandin: (1) Kavyadarshana (2) Dasakumaracharita (Adventures of 10 princes). Bhartrihari (King): (1) Nitishataka (philosophy) (2) Vakyapadiya (Sanskrit Grammar). Ishwar Krishna: Sankhyakarika (observation on Samkhya Philosophy).
What philosophical and secular works did Vyasa and Vatsyayana produce?	Vyasabhasya; Nyaya Sutra Bhashya; Kamasutra: Vyasa: Vyasabhasya (work on Yoga philosophy). Vatsyayana: Nyaya Sutra Bhashya (1st commentary on Gautama’s Nyaya Sutras) Kamasutra (a secular text dealing with Eroticism)
What mathematical advances and games are noted for the Gupta period?	Aryabhatiya; Suryasiddhanta; Chaturanga (Chess): Aryabhatta wrote Aryabhatiya — discusses Sine, Cosine, etc.; the same is discussed in Suryasiddhanta written by Latadeva (as per Alberuni of the 11th Century). Note: Game of chess (Chaturanga) originated in India in this period.

6. Post-Gupta Dynasties — Maukharis of Kannauj

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6. Post-Gupta Dynasties — Maukharis of Kannauj

Cue Words	Notes
Which three early Maukhari kings appear on Barabar and Nagarjuna Hills inscriptions?	Yajnavarman; Sardula-varman; Anantavarman: 3 kings mentioned in inscriptions of Barabar and Nagarjuna Hills (Bihar): Yajnavarman, his son Sardula-varman, and his son Anantavarman.
List the Maukhari rulers named on the Asirgarh Copper seal.	Hari-varman → Aditya-varman → Isvara-varman → Isana-varman → Sarva-varman → Avanti-varman: Asirgarh Copper seal gives the names of the following rulers: Maharaja Hari-varman Maharaja Aditya-varman Maharaja Isvara-varman Maharajadhiraja Isana-varman Sarva-varman Avanti-varman
What were Isanavarman’s achievements and how did the Maukhari kingdom end?	1st Maharajadhiraja; Defeated Andhras–Gulikas–Gaudas; Grahavarman + Rajyasri; Killed by Devagupta: Isanavarman: defeated Andhras, Gulikas, Gaudas; 1st to have the title Maharajadhiraja. Grahavarman (last Maukhari king) → married to Rajyasri (Pushyabhuti) and killed by Malawa king Devagupta → Maukhari kingdom came to an end.

7. Post-Gupta Dynasties — Later Guptas of Magadha

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7. Post-Gupta Dynasties — Later Guptas of Magadha (Mid-6th Century CE – 675 CE)

Cue Words	Notes
Were the Later Guptas part of the Imperial Gupta line, and what is their genealogy?	Feudatories; Aphsad Inscription; Krishnagupta → Adityasena line: Feudatories of the Imperial Guptas and not part of the main Gupta dynasty. Aphsad Inscription, Gaya: genealogy of the kings of this dynasty — Krishnagupta Harshagupta Jivitagupta Kumaragupta Damodaragupta Mahasenagupta Madhavagupta Adityasena
Who was the most powerful Later Gupta and what happened after him?	Adityasena (672 CE); Param Bhagavata; Devagupta–Vishnugupta–Jivita-gupta; Ambiguous End: Powerful ruler: Adityasena (672 CE) got title of Param bhagavata and constructed a temple. Names of three successors of Adityasena: Devagupta, Vishnu-gupta and Jivita-gupta. No successor of Jivita-gupta is known; end of the Later Guptas is ambiguous.

8. Post-Gupta Dynasties — Aulikaras of Malwa

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8. Post-Gupta Dynasties — Aulikaras of Malwa (350 AD – 550 AD)

Cue Words	Notes
Who is the most famous Aulikara, and which inscription records him?	Yashodharman; Mandsaur / Dashapur (Sondani): Founder not confirmed, but most famous one is Yashodharman. Mandsaur inscription of Yashodharma / Dashapur (Sondani village).
What was the Battle of Sondani (528 AD) and its outcome for the Hunas?	Yashodharman + Narasimhagupta vs Mihirakula; Huna Empire Ends: Battle of Sondani (528 AD): Yashodharman along with Narasimhagupta defeated Mihirakula → Mihirakula took refuge in Kashmir → End of Huna Empire. Vakpati, Court Poet — seems to be an exaggeration that Yasodharman conquered all the regions in south and north.

9. Post-Gupta Dynasties — Gaudas of Bengal

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9. Post-Gupta Dynasties — Gaudas of Bengal (6th–7th Century AD)

Cue Words	Notes
Who was Shashanka and what was his capital and religious identity?	Shashanka (590–637 AD); Karnasuvarna; Lord of Gauda / Gaureshwara; Shaiva: SHASHANKA (590 AD – 637 AD): famous ruler; capital: KARNASUVARNA. Shaiva Brahmin; referred to as the Lord of Gauda, Gaureshwara. 1st Mention: 7th-century fort Rohtasgarh (Magadha) as Mahasamanta Shashankadeva.
What controversial act is attributed to Shashanka, and how did his kingdom end?	Bodhi Tree Chopped; Manava; Split between Harsha and Bhaskaravarman: Said to have chopped down the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya’s Mahabodhi Temple. Replaced by his son, Manava, but kingdom was quickly split between Harsha and Bhaskaravarman of Kamarupa (also conquered Karnasuvarna).

10. Post-Gupta Dynasties — Varman (Kamarupa) and Salamba of Assam

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10. Post-Gupta Dynasties — Varman (Kamarupa) and Salamba of Assam

Cue Words	Notes
What was the Kamarupa (Varman) dynasty’s identity, location and mythical descent?	Bhauma; Assam–Pragjyotish; Asur Naraka; Bhagadatta: Also known as Bhauma (Son of Bhumi). Location: Modern Assam and Pragjyotish. Claims descent from Asur Naraka, father of Bhagadatta (who took part in the Mahabharata). Time span noted: 4th Century CE – 12th Century CE.
Outline early Varman kings from Pushyavarman to Supratisthitavarman.	Pushyavarman Founder; Narayanavarman 1st Independent; Shitavarman vs Mahasenagupta; Sasanka vs Supratisthitavarman: King Pushyavarman (350 AD): Founder; assumed title of Maharajadhiraja and Lord of Pragjyotish as per Nalanda seal under Samudragupta. Narayanavarman (7th King): 1st Independent King; followed by Bhutivarman (8th King). Chandramukhavarman (not so known) followed by Sthitavarman / Shitavarman (mentioned in Aphsad inscription of Adityasena Gupta, Later Gupta ruler). Shitavarman defeated by Mahasenagupta on the banks of Lauhitya (Brahmaputra River). Sasanka defeated son of Shitavarman, i.e. Supratisthitavarman.
Why is Bhaskaravarman famous, and what sources/records belong to him?	Alliance with Harsha; Xuanzang; Hamsvega; Dubi & Nidhanpur; Narakasura Claim: BHASKARAVARMAN: famous ruler. Political alliances with Harshavardhana against Gauda and East Malwa. Foreign contacts: Xuanzang and Li Yi-Piao; Envoy to Harsha: Hamsvega. 1st king to claim descent from the mythical Narakasura, Bhagadatta, and Vajradatta. Issued: Dubi and Nidhanpur copper plate grants + clay seal found in Nalanda. Salasthambha established the Mlechchha dynasty.
How was the Salamba dynasty of Assam established?	Harjaravarman (800 CE); Capital Haruppeshvara; Brahmaputra: SALAMBA DYNASTY OF ASSAM (800 – 1000 CE). 800 CE: Harjaravarman — a local ruler of Kamarupa assumed control and established the Salamba dynasty with its capital at Haruppeshvara on the banks of river Brahmaputra.

11. Harshavardhana Era — Rise of Pushyabhuti / Vardhana Dynasty

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11. Harshavardhana Era — Rise of Pushyabhuti / Vardhana Dynasty (500 CE – 647 CE)

Cue Words	Notes
What political situation followed the fall of the Guptas in north India?	Political Disintegration; Pushyabhutis; Maukharis; Later Guptas; Aulikaras; Maitrakas; Gauda: Fall of the Gupta Empire → Political disintegration of northern India. Major powers of North India: Pushyabhutis, Maukharis of Kannauj, Later Guptas of Magadha, Aulikaras of Malwa, Maitrakas of Valabhi, and Gauda kingdom of Bengal under King Shashanka (c. late 6th century CE – 637 CE). Dynasty seat: Sthaneshwar / Thanesar (Haryana).
Who founded the Pushyabhuti/Vardhana dynasty according to different traditions?	Banabhatta: Pushyabhuti; Alternative: Naravardhana → Adityavardhana → Rajyavardhana: As per Banabhatta, Pushyabhuti is founder of Pushyabhuti or Vardhana Dynasty. Some others believe that Naravardhana was the founder, followed by Adityavardhana and Rajyavardhana (presumably from c. 500 – 580 CE).
What did Prabhakaravardhana achieve and who were his children?	1st Notable King (580–605 CE); vs Gurjaras & Huns; Rajyavardhana, Harsha, Rajyasri: PRABHAKARAVARDHANA (580–605 CE): 1st notable king. Fought against Gurjaras and Huns and established his authority till Malwa and Gujarat. He had 3 children: Rajyavardhana, Harshavardhana and a daughter named Rajyasri. Rajyasri: married to Grahavarman (Maukhari king of Kannauj) → Ally.
How did Rajyavardhana die and how did Harsha come to the throne?	Grahavarman Killed 606 CE; Devagupta Occupies Kannauj; Sasanka Murders Rajyavardhana; Harsha at 16: Rajyavardhana (605–606 CE): Later Guptas + Gauda killed Grahavarman in 606 CE. Devagupta, the Later Gupta king, then occupied Kanyakubja (Kannauj) and imprisoned Rajyasri. Rajyavardhana possibly killed Devagupta but was treacherously murdered by Sasanka. Harshavardhana: younger son; ascended throne after death of elder brother Rajyavardhana at age of 16 in 606 AD and freed Rajyasri.

12. Harshavardhana Era — Conquests, Alliances and Titles

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12. Harshavardhana Era — Conquests, Alliances and Titles (606 AD – 647 AD)

Cue Words	Notes
Which rulers and regions did Harsha deal with, and who were his allies?	Sasanka; Valabhi; Gurjara; Pulakesin II; Sindh–Nepal–Kashmir–Magadha–Odra–Kongoda; Bhaskaravarman: Warned/opposed rulers such as: Sasanka, Maitrakas of Valabhi, Gurjara of Broach, Pulakesin II (Chalukya), rulers of Sindh, Nepal, Kashmir, Magadha, Odra (northern Odisha) and Kongoda (another geographical unit in ancient Odisha). Alliance with: Bhaskaravarman of Kamarupa (Pragjyotisha), Assam. No detail of the war between Harsha and Sasanka; Harsha seems to have successfully subjugated the Gauda Empire after death of Sasanka in 637 CE.
What marriage alliance linked Harsha with the Maitrakas?	Dhruvabhatta + Harsha’s Daughter; Valabhi Subordinate Ally: Marriage alliance with Maitrakas: Dhruvabhatta + daughter of Harsha. Soon, Valabhi became a subordinate ally of Harsha.
What was the outcome of Harsha’s conflict with Pulakesin II?	Pulakesin II Victory; Parameswara; Aihole; Sakalottarapathanatha: Pulakesin II defeated Harsha and assumed the title of “Parameswara” (mentioned in Aihole inscription written by Ravi Kirti in Sanskrit language) and gave Sakalottarapathanatha title to Harsha.
What titles and military role did Harsha hold?	Commander-in-Chief; Maharajadhiraja; Parambhattaraka: Harsha was first commander-in-chief of the army and took titles of Maharajadhiraja and Parambhattaraka.

13. Harshavardhana Era — Administration, Revenue, Army and Justice

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13. Harshavardhana Era — Administration, Revenue, Army and Justice

Cue Words	Notes
How was Harsha assisted in administration and who were key officers?	Council of Ministers; Avanti; Singhanada; Kuntala; Skandagupta; Dirghadhvajas; Mahapratihara; Banu; Sarvagata: King assisted by a council of ministers on internal and external administration. Avanti: officer for war and peace. Singhanada: commander-in-chief of army. Kuntala: head of the cavalry. Skandagupta: head of war elephants. Dirghadhvajas: Royal Messengers. Mahapratihara: Chief of Palace Guard. Banu: Keeper of Records. Sarvagata: Secret Service Department.
What was the role of Samanta Maharaja and how was the empire divided?	Feudatories; Jagirs / Jagirdari; Bhuktis–Vishaya–Gram: Samanta Maharaja: feudatories for administration; not paid in cash, but assigned jagirs → jagirdari system existed (feudalism). Division of Empire: same as Gupta rulers, i.e. Bhuktis, Vishaya, Gram.
Describe Harsha’s revenue system and quinquennial charity practice.	Bhaga 1/6th; Hiranya; Bali; Sales-Tax; Toll; Feudatory Presents; 5-Year Assembly: Revenue: Bhaga — 1/6th of the product was paid in kind. Hiranya, Bali, Sales-Tax, toll tax, presents from feudatories were other income. Harsha used to organise religious assembly once in 5 years; left over in treasury was used to give charity along with personal belongings.
What financial instrument appears in the post-Harsha period, and how was Harsha’s army structured?	Hundi; Chaturanga; Baladhikrata; Vrahadasvatara; Maha-senapathi: In Post-Harsha Period: Hundi will be used as bill of exchange, as remittance instruments (to transfer funds from one place to another), as credit instruments (to borrow money [IOUs]). Army: four divisions (chaturanga) of Harsha’s army. Commander: Baladhikrata / Maha-Baladhikrata Head of cavalry: Vrahadasvatara Maha-senapathi: armed forces
How severe was justice under Harsha and who dispensed it?	Life Imprisonment; Loss of Limbs; Ordeals; Mimamsakas: Justice: severe; usual punishments were imprisonment for life, loss of limbs; ordeals by fire and water also existed. Mimamsakas were appointed to dispense justice.

14. Harshavardhana Era — Society, Religion, Economy and Literature

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14. Harshavardhana Era — Society, Religion, Economy and Literature

Cue Words	Notes
What was the social structure and position of women under Harsha?	4-fold Division + Caste Firm; Women Declined; No Purdah in High Class; Sati of Yasomati: 4-fold division + caste system was firmly established. Position of women declined. No purdah system among high class. Sati: Yasomatidevi, wife of Prabhakara Vardhana, immolated herself.
What dietary, religious and worship practices prevailed?	Meat & Onion Avoided; Freedom of Worship; Buddhism Accepted; Animal Slaughter Restricted: Consumption of meat and onion was avoided. People were given complete freedom of worship and social harmony prevailed. Religion: He accepted Buddhism but Hinduism and Jainism were also popular. Slaughter of animals and consumption of meat was restricted.
What religious assemblies did Harsha convene at Prayaga?	Once in 5 Years; Mahamoksha Parishad; Buddha Statues: Religious assembly at Prayaga was constituted once in every 5 years; golden statue of Buddha was consecrated in a monastery and a small statue of Buddha (three feet) was brought out in a procession. Convened quinquennial assemblies known as Mahamoksha Parishad at Prayag.
How prosperous was Harsha’s empire and which cities thrived or declined?	Agriculture–Industry–Trade Flourished; Huna Destruction vs Banaras–Kannauj Prosperity: Empire of prosperity; agriculture, industry and trade both internal and external flourished. Cities like Peshawar, Taxila, Pataliputra and Mathura were destroyed by Hunas; but places of Banaras and Kannauj were prosperous.
What literary works did Harsha and Banabhatta write, and what languages/centres thrived?	Ratnavali; Priyadarshika; Nagananda; Harshacharita; Kadambari; Sanskrit; Nalanda & Valabhi: An individual took to learning between 9 and 30 years of age. Harsha wrote Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda. Banabhatta wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari. Language: Sanskrit; Centres of Learning: Nalanda and Valabhi. Famous scholars in his court: Mayura, Divakara, Jayasena.
What do we know about Nalanda, Hiuen Tsang, and scholars who went to China/Tibet?	Si-Yu-Ki; Shilabhadra; Kumarajiva etc.; Padmasambhava etc.; Tatpadanudhyata: Hiuen Tsang received education in Nalanda; wrote Si-Yu-Ki (Buddhist Records of the Western World). Nalanda University: Shilabhadra considered as guru of Hiuen Tsang. Important Teachers: Dharmapala, Chandrapala, Shilabhadra, Bhartrihari, Jayasena, Devakara and Matanga. Noted scholars who went to China: Kumarajiva, Paramartha, Sandhakara and Dharmadeva. Noted scholars who went to Tibet: Padmasambhava, Kamalashila, Sthiramati, Santarakshita. Tatpadanudhyata / padanudhyata: literally “meditating at his feet”; often used to refer to the son and successor of the king or the favourite samanta (subordinate).

15. Imperial Cholas — Foundation and Early Rulers

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15. Imperial Cholas — Foundation and Early Rulers (850 – 1200 CE)

Cue Words	Notes
Who founded the Imperial Cholas and what did he do at Tanjore?	Vijayalaya Chola; Captured Tanjore; Durga Temple: Founder: Vijayalaya Chola — captured Tanjore and built a temple for Durga.
Summarise Aditya, Parantaka I, Parantaka II and Uttama Chola.	End of Pallavas; Vellur; Takkolam; Uthiramerur; Sri Lanka; Tondaimandalam Recovery: Aditya (871 – 907 CE): ended Pallava Rule. Parantaka I (907 – 955 CE): Defeated Pandyas + Ceylon Ruler at Battle of Vellur. Defeated by Krishna III in Battle of Takkolam → Rashtrakuta army overran Tondaimandalam. Provided vimana of the famous Nataraja temple at Chidambaram with a golden roof. Uthiramerur inscriptions: Village administration under the Cholas. Parantaka II / Sundara Chola (c. 957 – 973 CE): Invaded Sri Lanka. Uttama Chola (973 – 985 CE): Recovered most of Tondaimandalam.

16. Imperial Cholas — Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 CE)

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16. Imperial Cholas — Rajaraja I / Arumolivarman (985 – 1014 CE)

Cue Words	Notes
What were Rajaraja I’s major conquests?	Kandalur Salai; Amarabhujanga; Maldives; Northern Sri Lanka; Satyasraya; Raichur Doab: Conquests: Chera ruler Bhaskara Ravivarman in the naval battle of Kandalur Salai. Defeat of the Pandya ruler Amarabhujanga and naval expedition against the Maldives. Annexation of northern Sri Lanka by Rajendra I → Sri Lankan king Mahinda V fled. (Source notes this under Rajaraja I conquests block; northern Lanka campaigns associated with the Rajaraja–Rajendra phase.) Defeated Satyasraya and captured Raichur Doab, Banavasi and other places.
What was the territorial extent of the Chola Empire under Rajaraja I?	Pandya–Chera–Tondaimandalam; Gangavadi–Nolambapadi–Telugu Choda; N. Ceylon; Maldives: By his conquests, the extent of the Chola Empire under Rajaraja I included the Pandya, Chera and the Tondaimandalam regions of Tamil Nadu and the Gangavadi, Nolambapadi and the Telugu Choda territories in the Deccan and the northern part of Ceylon and the Maldive Islands beyond India.
What temple, title and Buddhist patronage are linked to Rajaraja I?	Brihadeshwara/Rajarajeshwara (1010 CE); Ulagalanda Perumal; Chudamani Vihara: Construction: Rajarajeshwara temple or Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore (1010 CE). Title: “Ulagalanda Perumal” (the king who measured the earth). Rajaraja allowed Sailendra king to build a Buddhist Vihara in Nagapattinam known as Chudamani Vihara.

17. Imperial Cholas — Rajendra I and Successors

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17. Imperial Cholas — Rajendra I (1014 – 1044 CE) and Successors

Cue Words	Notes
What were Rajendra I’s major military and naval achievements?	Whole Sri Lanka; Chola Lake; Tungabhadra Boundary; Gangaikonda Cholapuram; Mahipala I; SE Asia: Captured the whole of Sri Lanka and converted Bay of Bengal into Chola Lake. Defeated Jayasimha II → Tungabhadra (boundary between Cholas and Chalukyas). Gangaikonda Cholapuram: established city after winning over Ganga; his most famous military enterprise was his expedition to North India. Rajendra I defeated Mahipala I (Pala Empire) of Bengal. Temple: Brihadishwara Temple at Gangakondacholapuram. Naval expedition at peak; even captured South Asian countries like Java, etc.
Summarise Rajadhiraja, Rajendra II, Virarajendra and Athirajendra.	Jayamkonda; Koppam; Yanai-mel-thunjina Devar; Kolhapur Jaystambha; Vedic College: Rajadhiraja (1044 – 1052 CE): Other name: Jayamkonda Chola (the victorious Chola king). Destroyed Chalukyan cities such as Kalyani and planted a Jaystambha at Yadgir. Killed in Battle of Koppam against Someshwar — western Chalukyan king — and earned title of Yanai-mel-thunjina Devar (died on the back of an elephant). Rajendra II (1054 – 1063 CE): Defeated Someshwar; planted Jaystambha (Kolhapur). Virarajendra (1063 – 1067 CE): Defeated Someshwar II + Vedic college of learning. Athirajendra (1067 – 1070 CE): died while suppressing one of his rebels.
What were Kulottunga I’s policies and how did the Cholas decline?	72 Merchants to China; Sri Vijaya; Freedom to Sri Lanka; Vengi Union; Kamban; Later Decline: Kulottunga I (1070 – 1122 CE): Sent a large embassy of 72 merchants to China and maintained cordial relations with the kingdom of Sri Vijaya. Complete freedom to Sri Lanka and got his daughter married to Virapperumal, Sinhala Prince. United the Vengi kingdom of Chalukyas with the Chola Empire. Classic writer Kamban (who wrote Ramayana in Tamil) was at his court. Decline: later rulers like Kulottunga II, Rajaraja II (Airavateshwar Temple), and Kulottunga III tried to maintain the Chola rule but it gradually suffered a downfall and came to an end.

18. Imperial Cholas — Administration and Assemblies

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18. Imperial Cholas — Administration and Assemblies

Cue Words	Notes
What was the hierarchical administrative structure of the Chola Empire?	Rashtriyam/Rajyam → Mandalams → Valanadus/Kottams → Nadus → Ur / Sabha: Rashtriyam / Rajyam (empire) → Mandalams (provinces) → Valanadus / Kottams → Nadus (districts) under Nattar. Nadus (autonomous villages) are divided into 2 parts: Ur: General assembly of the local residents of non-Brahmadeya villages. Sabha: An assembly of adult males in agraharas (rent-free villages i.e. Brahmadeya). Guilds / Shrenis were present.
Define Erivirpattinam, Nilaippadai, Nagaram, Taniyurs and specialised nagarams.	Fortified Settlements; Cantonments; Merchant Assembly; Ghee–Oil & Textile Nagarams: Erivirpattinam: fortified settlements. Nilaippadai: Army cantonments. Nagaram: assembly of merchants. Taniyurs: Land outside Brahmadeya. Shankarappadi Nagaram: Ghee and oil suppliers. Saliya Nagaram and Satsuma Parishatta Nagaram: textile trade. 902 CE inscription: mention of a woman Bittaya who headed village Bharangiyur.

19. Imperial Cholas — Society, Economy, Art and Architecture

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19. Imperial Cholas — Society, Economy, Art and Architecture

Cue Words	Notes
What was Chola social structure including Valangai and Idangai?	Caste Prevalent; Paraiyar Miserable; Valangai Agricultural; Idangai Artisan–Trading: Caste system is prevalent; condition of the Paraiyar (untouchables) was miserable. Valangai — mainly agricultural groups. Idangai — mainly artisans and trading class.
What are the main features of Chola art, architecture and literature?	Living Chola Temples; Nataraja Bronze; Kamban; Tirumurai; Divya Prabandham; Pampa–Ponna–Ranna: Architecture: Living Chola temples. Sculpture: Four-handed Bronze Sculpture of Nataraja by Chola artists (Sthapati). Literature: Ramayana (Kamban) Tirumurais by Nambi (Shaiva) Divya Prabandham by Nathamuni (Alvar–Vaishnav) Famous Trinity of Kannada poetry: Pampa, Ponna and Ranna.
Which major Chola temples are architectural landmarks across the dynasty?	Brihadeshwara Tanjore (1010); Gangakondacholapuram; Airavateshwar; Chidambaram Golden Vimana: Rajarajeshwara / Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore (1010 CE) — Rajaraja I. Brihadishwara Temple at Gangakondacholapuram — Rajendra I. Airavateshwar Temple — associated with Rajaraja II. Golden roof of vimana of Nataraja temple at Chidambaram — Parantaka I.