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ANCIENT HISTORY NOTES — RAHUL SENGAR SIR (NEXT IAS) 2024-25 ​

DIVISION OF HISTORY ​

  • Pre-history — events before invention of writing, e.g. Stone Age, Early Chalcolithic Period
  • Proto-history — between pre-history and history; writing exists but script is undeciphered; info from other civilisations; e.g. Indus Valley Civilisation
  • History — study of literate societies based on written records and archaeological sources
  • Research on Stone Age in India started in 1863
  • Chopper-chopping pebble tools first found from Sohan River Valley, Punjab (Pakistan)
  • First handaxe tools found at Vadanadurai and Attirapakkam near Madras
  • Robert Bruce Foote — British geologist and archaeologist; picked up a stone tool at Pallavaram cantonment, near Chennai; it was a handaxe made of quartzite
  • Note: Mesolithic in India can start from 10000 BC and go up to 4000 BC; Neolithic can start from 8000–6000 BC and go up to 1000 BC in South India

STONE AGE (600000 BC – 1000 BC) ​

Palaeolithic Age (600000 BC – 10000 BC) ​

  • Climate: Ice Age throughout all three sub-phases
  • Lower Palaeolithic — Human species: Homo Erectus; Tools: Hand Axe, Choppers, Cleavers; Stone: Limestone, Quartzite
  • Middle Palaeolithic — Human species: Neanderthals; Tools: Flakes (Levallois & Clactonian), use of hand axe declined, Blades, Pointers, Scrapers, Borers; Stone: Quartzite (Quartzite Men)
  • Upper Palaeolithic — Human species: Emergence of Homo Sapiens; Tools: Bone tools, Needles, Harpoons, Parallel-sided blades, Fishing and Burin tools (blade-burin/Magdalenian culture); Stone: Chert, Jasper
  • No domestication of animals, no agriculture, no pottery, no art in Lower and Middle Palaeolithic
  • First rock paintings evidence in Upper Palaeolithic — animals, hunter images
  • Major Sites: UP (Belan Valley), MP (Bhimbetka), Rajasthan (Didwana), Cauvery River

Mesolithic Age (10000 BC – 4000 BC) ​

  • Climate: Holocene Era; Human species: Homo Sapiens
  • Occupation: Hunting and Gathering
  • First domestication of animal — first animal was Dog; common animals were Sheep and Goat
  • Technology: Microliths
  • Tools: Composite tools, spearheads, arrowheads, sickles, Geometrical and non-Geometrical shapes
  • First paintings and tools discovered in Sohagighat, Mirzapur by A.C.L. Carlleyle
  • Stone used: Agate
  • Clothing: Animal skin; Houses: Semi-permanent settlements, Caves and Open grounds
  • Burials: Yes; Some pottery references (Langhnaj, Mirzapur UP)
  • Themes of paintings: social life, sexual activity, childbirth, rearing of children, burial ceremony, dancing, food collection, family life, women in cloth; Reflects religious practices and gender-based labour division
  • Major Sites: Rajasthan (Bagor), MP (Adamgarh, Bhimbetka, Kharwar, Jaora, Kathotia), Gujarat (Langhnaj), Odisha (Sundargarh, Sambalpur)

Neolithic Age (8000 BC – 1000 BC) ​

  • Climate: Holocene; Human species: Homo Sapiens
  • Occupation: Hunting and Gathering + Domestication of animals + Agriculture (first crop: Barley)
  • Technology: Polished Tools; Use of Celts for ground
  • Bone tools: needles, scrapers, borers, arrowheads
  • John Lubbock gave Paleo and Neolithic names; Gordon Childe coined "Neolithic revolution" term
  • Stone used: Dyke, Basalt, Dolomite
  • Houses: Rectangular or circular houses made of mud and reeds
  • Pottery: Grey ware, Black-burnished ware, Mat-impressed ware
  • Evidence of grains in order: Barley (1st), Wheat (2nd), Rice (3rd)
  • Major Sites: Kashmir (Burzahom, Gufrakal), Pakistan (Mehrgarh), UP (Lahuradev), Karnataka (Le-mersuier discovered first Neolithic tool)

Important Mesolithic Sites ​

  • Bagor (Rajasthan) — best documented site on Kothari River; earliest domestication of animal
  • Adamgarh (MP) — earliest evidence of domestication of animal
  • Damdama (Pratapgarh, UP) — 41 human graves including 5 double and 1 triple burial; ornaments and pointed objects of bone
  • Mahadaha (Pratapgarh) — large number of implements made of bones and horns (oldest)
  • Sarai Nahar Rai (Pratapgarh) — 4 skeletons in a grave (oldest); bone ornaments and objects; pit stove
  • Langhnaj (Gujarat) — bones of wild animals (rhinoceros, blackbuck, etc.), pottery

Important Neolithic Sites ​

  • Koldihwa and Mahagara (Allahabad) — circular huts; crude handmade pottery; one of oldest evidence of rice
  • Lahuradev (Kabir Nagar) — earliest evidence of rice/agriculture as per new research
  • Mehrgarh (Pakistan) — use of sun-dried bricks; one of earliest evidence of wheat; earliest evidence of settled life
  • Burzahom (Kashmir) — domestic dogs buried with masters in graves; pit dwelling
  • Gufkral (Kashmir) — pit dwelling; stone tools; graveyards in houses
  • Chirand (Bihar) — Neolithic men used tools and weapons made of bones
  • Sanganakallu (Karnataka) — ash mounds of burnt relics of seasonal herdsmen camps

Other Important Notes ​

  • Lohanda Nala (Palaeolithic, Belan Valley) — World's oldest bone-made Mother Goddess
  • Lekhahiya (Vindhyan) — 27 human skeletons in one rock shelter
  • Belan Valley — all 3 phases (palaeolithic, mesolithic, neolithic) found in sequence
  • Earliest evidence of Agriculture in Indian Subcontinent: Lahuradev (if in options); if not then Mehrgarh
  • Painted Eggshells/Beads of Ostriches — evidence around 34000 BC in Patne (Maharashtra), Ramnagar (MP), Chadresal (Rajasthan)
  • Levalloisian stone-flaking technique — toolmaking technique of prehistoric Europe and Africa
  • Abbevillian and Acheulean industry — first standardised tradition of toolmaking of Homo erectus and early Homo sapiens

CHALCOLITHIC AGE (3000 BC – 700 BC) ​

  • First use of metal i.e. Copper
  • Domesticated Animals: Cow, Sheep, Goat, etc.
  • Cultivated Food Grains: Wheat, Rice, Bajra, Pulses, Cotton
  • Pottery: Black and Red pottery; Ochre-coloured pottery (Hastinapur and Atranjikhera)
  • Not acquainted with burnt bricks so Rural Settlements
  • Rectangular houses for chiefs; Round huts for commoners
  • Economy: Village economy, Barter system
  • Art of Copper smelting; good stone workers; knew spinning and weaving; manufacturing cloth but unaware of art of writing
  • Worship: Small clay images of earth goddesses; Bull terracotta in Malwa and Rajasthan served as religious cult
  • High infant mortality — children's burials found in large numbers in West Maharashtra
  • Jewellery: Shell, bone; women carried combs in their hair; beads of semi-precious stones (carnelian, steatite)
  • Paintings: Battle scenes, men riding horses, art of tanning, complex geometric patterns

Important Chalcolithic Sites ​

  • Ahar-Banas (Rajasthan) — smelting and metallurgy; supplied copper tools; rice evidence; Black Red Pottery with White designs
  • Gilund (Rajasthan) — stone blade industry discovered here
  • Navdatoli (MP) — on Narmada River; cultivated almost all food grains; round and rectangular structures
  • Malwa (MP) — on Narmada River; richest chalcolithic ceramics and spindle whorls
  • Kayatha (MP) — on Chambal River; mud-plastered floors; Pre-Harappan elements in pottery
  • Daimabad (Maharashtra) — southern extension of IVC; largest Jorwe culture site in Godavari valley; famous for bronze goods (rhinoceros, elephant, 2-wheeled chariot with rider and buffalo)
  • Songaon, Inamgaon and Nasik (Maharashtra) — large mud houses with ovens; circular pit houses; dead buried under floors in N-S direction
  • Nevasa (Jorwe, Maharashtra) and Eran (MP) — known for Non-Harappan culture
  • Note: Technically Chalcolithic sites should come before Harappan sites (Bronze) but practically in India some Harappan sites are older than Chalcolithic sites

Megalithic Age (2000 BC to 200 AD approx) ​

  • Big stones used above burials or commemorative (non-sepulchral) memorials
  • Actual burials: dolmenoid cists (box-shaped stone burial chambers), cairn circles (stone circles with defined peripheries), capstones (distinctive mushroom-shaped burial chambers found mainly in Kerala)
  • Non-sepulchral megaliths: menhirs (memorial sites)
  • Regions: All over India but mainly peninsular India — Maharashtra, Karnataka, TN, AP, etc.

INDUS-SARASWATI VALLEY CIVILISATION (IVC) / HARAPPAN CULTURE (3300 BC – 1300 BC) ​

  • IVC (Bronze Age) is the first urbanisation (by Gordon Childe) of the Indian subcontinent
  • Flourished around Indus, Ravi, and seasonal Ghaggar-Hakra River
  • First saw by Charles Masson in 1826; then visited by Burns and followed by Cunningham
  • John and William Brunton used bricks of IVC for rail tracks
  • Mr. Fleet published article in 1912
  • Extension: North — Manda (Chenab, Jammu); South — Malwan (Gujarat)/Daimabad (Maharashtra); West — Sutkagendor (Dashk); East — Alamgirpur (Hindon River, UP)

Phases of IVC ​

  • Early Harappan Phase (3300–2600 BCE) — earliest Indus script; centralised authority; urban quality of life; trade networks; cultivation of crops
  • Mature Harappan Phase (2600–1900 BCE) — large urban centres; Pakistan: Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-Daro; India: Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, Lothal
  • Late Harappan Phase (1900–1300 BCE) — gradual decline; Desalpur (Gujarat), Rojdi (Gujarat)

Features of IVC — Town Planning ​

  • City divided into two parts: Citadel (Upper City — western side) and Lower Town (Eastern side)
  • Citadel generally fortified (exception: Chanhudaro had no fortification)
  • Citadel contained vital administrative buildings like assembly house
  • Lothal's citadel is in South-east direction
  • Lower Town: residential block with no boundary wall (exception: Kalibangan and Mohenjodaro)
  • Exceptions: Lothal, Surkotda had no such division; Dholavira had 3 parts

Buildings ​

  • By side of road; terraced house; double storied buildings
  • Inner courtyard for daily chores, natural light and ventilation
  • Public and private wells; foyer area for privacy
  • Bathroom and kitchen located diagonally — symbolism of hygiene
  • No window on lower ground to avoid heat waves (except Mohenjodaro)
  • Presence of arches and pillars; ornamental bricks in Kalibangan
  • Absence of diversified ornamentation — use-based construction, not decoration
  • No Temples and No Palace found

Material and Drainage ​

  • Mostly baked bricks; unburnt bricks in Lothal, Rangpur and Kalibangan; stones in Dholavira
  • Uniform bricks; adhesives: wet clay, gypsum, bituminous
  • Brick-laid channels; each house had its own drainage
  • Covered manholes and underground drainage; terracotta pipes

Granary ​

  • Large dimension of 45–15 meter; brick platforms and wooden structure
  • Done to be safer from moisture and pests
  • Generally found on riverbank except Mohenjodaro (within Citadel)

Streets ​

  • 13–34 feet wide; Grid plan (cutting each other at right angle — but not always)
  • Lamp posts and dustbins at regular intervals
  • Absence of encroachment — sign of well-governed municipality
  • Gates and windows didn't open towards main road (Lothal is exception)

Great Bath ​

  • Waterproof central swimming pool with array of galleries and rooms — used for ritualistic cleansing
  • 2 entry gates in south; 1 each in north and east
  • Rooms with a well situated on east side
  • Northeast side of Great Bath had a bigger room — considered college of priests in Mohenjodaro

Agriculture and Dairy Products ​

  • Earliest to produce Cotton — known as Sindon as given by Greeks
  • Wheat, Barley, Ragi, Millet; evidence of Rice from Lothal and Rangpur
  • Kalibangan: Ploughed field with grid pattern for 2 crops (mustard and chickpea) at same time
  • Traces of canal in Shortughai (Afghanistan)
  • Terracotta model of plough: Cholistan (Pakistan) and Banawali (Haryana)

Economy ​

  • Exploitation of natural resources; animal husbandry; Barter system (No Coins)

Manufacturing ​

  • Use of Gold, Silver, Bronze; Terracotta
  • Bead-making workshops in Chanhudaro and Lothal
  • Ornaments made of gold, bones, steatite and precious stones like lapis lazuli
  • Cinnabar for cosmetic and face paint; lipstick and collyrium (eyeliner) were known to them

Pottery ​

  • Wheel made; polished; red and black painted; rare polychrome
  • Utilitarian and burial pottery (social stratification); luxury pottery (economic stratification)
  • Uniformity in pottery suggests some kind of control over production

Trade ​

  • Trade with Mesopotamia (Sumeria), Central Asia, Afghanistan, Makan (Oman), Dilmun (Bahrain)
  • Exports: Teak (Gujarat) and Lead (Kashmir and South India)
  • Imports: Jade (Asia), Turquoise (Khurson), Lapis Lazuli, Tin (Shortughai, Afghanistan), Gold (Iran and South India), Shell (Nageshwar and Balakot), Carnelian (Lothal)

Seals ​

  • Shapes: Generally square + triangular + cylindrical + circular
  • Various animals: Elephant, Rhino, Tiger, Deer, etc.
  • Cow, Horse, Lion and Camel are NOT found on seals

Weight and Measurement ​

  • Standardisation and Binary System based on ratio of 16
  • Material: Chert, Limestone, Steatite; cubical shape
  • Decimal system in bigger weights like 160, 320, 640 etc.

Religion ​

  • Secular; Nature worship; both male and female deity
  • Sculpture of reproductive human organs i.e. Phallus
  • Pashupati seal; Pipal tree; terracotta of Mother Goddess
  • Believed in magical powers (evidence: Amulets)
  • First to do Idol worship

Important IVC Sites ​

  • Shortughai, Oxus (Afghanistan) — traces of canal
  • Harappa (1921, Ravi, Punjab — Daya Ram Sahani) — granaries, bullock carts, sandstone statues, Unicorn Seal (1st evidence), tortoise bones, dancing boy (Natraj)
  • Mohenjodaro (1922, Indus, Sindh — R.D. Banerjee) — Pashupati Seal, Dancing Girl, Great Bath, Granary, Priest King, Cotton cloth, Ahimsa Seal, Silver seals, heaviest weight, Yogi sculpture
  • Sutkagendor (1929 — Stein) — trade point between Harappa and Babylon
  • Chanhudaro (1931, Indus — N.G. Mazumdar) — bead makers shop; footprint of dog chasing cat; lipsticks; remnants of Jhukkar and Jhangar Culture
  • Amri (1935 — Mazumdar) — antelope evidence
  • Kalibangan (1961, Ghaggar — discovered by Luigi Pio Tessitori; 1952: Ghose, 1961: B.B. Lal) — developed in shape of parallelogram; ploughed field; fire altars; camel's bones; earthquake evidence; Ahimsa Seal; grinder; cylindrical seal; terracotta of milk bottle
  • Lothal (1954, Bhogawa River, Gujarat — R. Rao) — artificial brick dockyard; rice husk; fire altars; chess playing; bead-making shop; terracotta of horse and boat; Persian Seal; 1st evidence of double burial
  • Surkotda (1964 — J.P. Joshi) — bones of horses; pot burial
  • Dholavira (1985 — R.S. Bisht) — 2nd largest in India; water harnessing system; rock-cut Great Bath; town divided in 3 parts; thickest fortification; 1st astronomical observatory; burials with no human remains
  • Desalpur — western extension in India
  • Ropar (1950, Sutlej, Punjab — B.B. Lal) — dog buried with human; oval pit burials; copper axe; first site excavated after independence
  • Dadheri — PGW culture; arrival of Aryans
  • Alamgirpur (Yamuna, UP) — broken copper blade; ceramic items; impression of cloth; utensils with triangle, peacock and squirrel
  • Sanauli — 1st reference of chariot (2-wheeled)
  • Hulas — handmade + wheel-made pottery
  • Banawali (1974, Haryana — R.S. Bisht) — evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan culture; terracotta of plough; only city with radial streets
  • Rakhigarhi (1969, Ghaggar, Haryana — Surajbhan) — largest site of IVC; cylindrical seal; alligator terracotta bricks; 1st proven couple burial; beads workshop
  • Bhagwanpura (Saraswati River — J.P. Joshi)
  • Manda (1982, Jammu) — procured wood
  • Daimabad (1958, Pravara River — B.P. Bopardikar) — bronze images (charioteer, chariot, ox, elephant, rhino)

Differences: IVC vs Contemporary Civilisations ​

  • Extension: IVC larger than combined area of Mesopotamia and Egypt
  • IVC river system: Indus and tributaries; Mesopotamia: Tigris and Euphrates; Egypt: Nile
  • IVC cities: well-structured and planned; others: complex cities
  • IVC drainage: more organised and proper; Egypt used copper pipes
  • IVC political system: not clear; believed to be dominated by merchants; no evidence of matriarchal system
  • No king system in IVC; yes in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Mayans
  • IVC religion: nature worship; both male and female deity; NO TEMPLES
  • IVC bricks: burnt/baked; Egypt: sun-dried; Mesopotamia: lesser burnt + sun-dried
  • IVC: mathematics not known; no evidence of predicting celestial movements
  • Mesopotamia: sexagesimal maths; Mayans: exceptional at maths and predicting celestial movements
  • IVC: no remains of timekeeping; Egyptians had sundials, water clocks
  • IVC writing: pictographic script known as Boustrophedon (undeciphered)
  • Mesopotamia: Cuneiform (deciphered); Egypt: Hieroglyphics (deciphered)
  • IVC weapons: some found in Sanauli; no clear evidence of war
  • IVC chariot: 2-wheeled (better technology); Mesopotamia/Egypt: 4-wheeled

Reasons for Decline of IVC ​

  • Flood theory — silt deposit above ground level; but cannot explain decline outside Indus valley
  • Earthquake/River shifting — raised level of flood plain; but river cannot be dammed by tectonic effects
  • Drought — 2000 BC less rain; increased aridity; but not all rivers dried up
  • Aryan Invasion — human skeletons on streets; Rigveda refers to dasa fortresses; Veda mentions Hariyappa; but Aryan arrival not earlier than 1500 BC while Harappas declined around 1800–1700 BC
  • Ecological imbalance — forest and grass depleted due to over-urbanisation; but computation of Harappan population is scanty
  • Survival of tradition: urban setup ended but religious practices, cult of sacred places, fire worship, house plans, potter wheel, attention to bathing etc. survived

VEDIC PERIOD (1500 BC – 600 BC) ​

  • Sources (Indian Literary): Vedas (Shruti); Early Vedic Period: Rigveda (oldest, Mandala 2–9); Later Vedic Period: Rigveda (Book 1 and 10), Yajurveda, Samveda, Atharvaveda and Smritis
  • Sources (Foreign): Zend Avesta (Iranian Text)
  • Sources (Non-Literary): Pottery (Painted Grey Ware in Gangetic Region), Sculpture
  • Foreign Non-Literary: Boghaz Koi (Asia Minor — Vedic Gods), Mittani (Syria), Kassitte (Iraq), Hittaite (Anatolia)

EARLY VEDIC PERIOD (1500 BC – 1000 BC) ​

  • Rigveda composers describe themselves as Arya
  • Meaning of Arya: Indo-European origin speech group / Cultural group / men of good family
  • Region: Sapta-Saindhav — land of 7 rivers: Sindhu (Indus) + 5 Tributaries + Sarasvati (lost)
  • Indus is most mentioned; Sarasvati is most pious river
  • God Varuna upheld Rit (natural law) — known as Ritasyagopa; Dharma = Duty

Society ​

  • Tribal society: divided into Aryans and Non-Aryans (Dasas and Dasyus)
  • Varna used as reference of complexion (Aryan = fair; Dasyus = dark) and occupation (Rajan, Purohit, Vis)
  • Dasa and Dasyus were used as slaves for domestic help and not agriculture
  • Aryans were soft towards Dasa and hostile towards Dasyus
  • Egalitarian society; social differentiates were not sharp
  • Kula (Family) → Gram (Group of Family) → Clan (Vis) → Jana (Tribe)
  • Head of Kula: Kulapa (a male) → Patriarchal Society → desired birth of son
  • Head of Gram: Gramini — also head of village fighting unit
  • Head of Jana: Rajan (Chief — no king system); Wife of Rajan: Mahishi
  • Marriage: present; usually monogamous; some references to polygamy and polyandry; no references to child marriage or sati system
  • Remarriage of widow: Niyoga (Levirate) — marriage to husband's brother
  • Good status of women: many hymns of Rigveda compiled by women called Brahma Vadinis — Lopamudra, Vishwawara, Sikta, Nivavari, Ghosha
  • Two drinks: Soma (sanctioned by religion; drunk at sacrifices) and Sura (disapproved by priests)
  • Played gambling; Chariot Race was famous
  • Gotra term mentioned in Rigveda for Cow Pen or Herds of Cows

Religion ​

  • World run as per Dharma and Rit (natural cosmic order)
  • Personification of natural forces (earth, fire, wind, rain) — anthropomorphic
  • Sacrifices performed for Praja and cattle — materialistic and not spiritualistic
  • NO IDOL WORSHIP; NO PRIEST for household rituals; No magic or omen
  • Important Gods: Indra (Rain), Agni (Fire), Varuna (Ocean), Yama (Death), Soma (god of plants), Rudra (god whose arrows bring disease), Ashvini (God of War — gifted prosthetic to Vishpala, a woman/horse warrior), Savitri (deity of Gayatri mantra written by Vishwamitra in 3rd mandala), Aditi (Mother of many gods), Usha (Goddess of Dawn), Marut (God of Thunder)
  • Important Priests: Vashishtha and Vishwamitra
  • Polytheistic character but traces of Ekaishwarvaad (Monotheism) via Prajapati; Henotheism via having all qualities in one god; Panatheism as same god is considered as supreme
  • एकं सद्‌ विप्रा बहुधा वदन्ति of Rigveda shows Advaitvada or Monism

Political System ​

  • Rajana is head of Jana; 2 duties: Protection of cows from Panis, and Protection of tribes
  • Rajana (Gopa) assisted by: Purohit (Guru), Sanani (Commander-in-Chief), Vrajpati (Authority over large land), Gramini (Head of Village Army)
  • Battles fought for cattle: Gavisthi, Gaveshana, Goshu, Gavyat
  • Indra named Purandhara as he broke forts of Dasyus
  • Administration through tribal assemblies: Vidhata (oldest body), Sabha (assembly of elites; judicial power), Samiti (larger body), Gana (troops)
  • Women attended Sabha and Vidhata
  • Sabha and Samiti are there to control autocracy of Chief
  • No standing army; military functions performed by Gana, Vrat, Sardha
  • No mention of Justice Officer
  • Descended monarchy: Rajana's post seems hereditary but traces of election by Samiti
  • Rig Vedic charioteers used Varma (coats of mail), sipra/sironastra (helmets), Asi (swords), Hanas (arrows), Ilhianus (bows)
  • 1st: Bharata King Divodasa (winner) and Dasa ruler Shambara
  • Battle of 10 Kings (Dasarajna Yuddha) on banks of Purushani (Ravi) between Sudas (Bharata tribe, Trutsu family) and 10 other tribes (5 Aryans — Panchajanya: Yadu, Turvasha, Puru, Anu, Druhyu + 5 Non-Aryan tribes)

Economy ​

  • Primary Occupation: Pastoral; Secondary Occupation: Agriculture (traces of Barley — YAVA)
  • Main Wealth: Cattle → Gomat: wealthy person having cows
  • No officer for tax collection; chief received voluntary offerings called "bali"
  • Barter system prevalent
  • NISHKA Greeva → gold ornamental
  • Ayas is common name for any metal; Gold called Hiranya
  • Introduced spoke wheels; horse played significant role
  • Hunting, carpentry, tanning, weaving, chariot-making, metal smelting
  • Pani term used for traders; as per Varun Sukta: a father can sell his child
  • Aghanya: cow not worthy to be killed (considered deity in Rigvedic sukta)
  • Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) and Painted Grey Ware (PGW)
  • Rigveda discusses Himalaya's peak Moojvant famous for Somarasa

Important Rivers — Ancient to Modern Name ​

  • Kubha → Kabul; Vitastata → Jhelum; Akshini → Chenab; Purushani → Ravi
  • Shutudri → Sutlej; Vipasha → Beas (Note: Beas River NOT mentioned in Rigvedic Nadi Sukta); Sadanira → Gandak; Drishdvati → Chautang
  • Gomati → Gomal; Marudvridha → Maruvarman; Sushoma → Sohan
  • Ganga and Yamuna mentioned

Other Important Terms ​

  • Nivi: cloth worn below waist; Vasas: cloth above waist; Taksha: Carpenter
  • Karna: metal worker; Veknat: money lender; Aritri: boatmen
  • Boghaz-Koi inscription: 4 Vedic Gods (Indra, Varuna, Mitra, Nasatya) and movement of Aryan to India from Iran

LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000 BC – 600 BC) ​

  • Discovery of IRON → Agriculture Economy → Reforms in Society and Religion

Political System ​

  • As per Shatpatha Brahmana: Aryans moved towards Eastern Gangetic Plains
  • India divided into 3 parts: Aryavrat (North), Madhyadesha (Central), Dakshinapatha (South India)
  • Larger kingdoms formed (Janapada/Rashtra)
  • Authority of Rajana and support staff called Ratnin — 12 jewels of the king
  • King (almost hereditary) concept developed; fights for territory as agriculture is main occupation
  • Still no standing army
  • Sacrifices to control the Jana (tribe) rather than for Jana
    • Rajsuya (coronation for supreme power)
    • Ashwamedha (to become ruler of all directions → Chakravarti)
    • Vajpeya (revitalisation of aging Rajana)
  • Tribal Assemblies: character of Sabha and Samiti changed — headed by richer class; women not allowed to attend; Vidhata completely disappeared
  • Rajana assumed titles: Samrat, Ekrat, Sarvbhumi, Virat

Society ​

  • 4-fold varna system dominated and became hereditary towards end of this period
  • First appearance in Purushsukta of 10th Mandala of Rigveda (added in LVP)
  • Male of top 3 varnas entitled for Upanayana Sanskara (sacred thread ceremony) — going to teacher → DWIJA (Twice Born)
  • Gotra as institution mentioned in Atharvaveda; Gotra exogamy started
  • Niyoga practice not supported; untouchability largely absent
  • Sati and child marriage references there but not dominating
  • Women's status degraded but women like Gargi and Maitreyi accomplished in knowledge arena
  • Widow remarriage: punrabhu word mentioned in Atharvaveda
  • First time 8 types of marriage mentioned in Ashvalayana Griha Sutra
  • Amaju: lifelong unmarried girl
  • Rathakars enjoyed good status and entitled to wear sacred thread
  • 3 out of 4-fold Ashram (stages) for 4 Purusharthas (goals)
    • Brahmacharya (Celibate Student) → Dharma
    • Grihastha (Householder) → Artha and Kama
    • Vanaprastha (Partial Renunciation) → spiritual wisdom
    • Sanyasa (Renunciation) → Moksha (developed after LVP)

Economy ​

  • Discovery of Iron (Krishna Ayas mentioned in Yajurveda) → clearing forest → fertile land → occupation changes from pastoral to agriculture
  • Main crops: Vrihi, Tandula, Sali (Rice); Godhuma (Wheat); Barley (Yava); Mudga (Mung Bean); Ikshu (Sugarcane)
  • Mandatory tax revenue: Bhaga and Bali
  • Officers: Bhagdukha (Revenue), Sangrihitri (Treasurer), Akshavapa (king's companion at game table), Govikartana (forest dept.), Palagala (Messenger)
  • Kings and Princes did manual labour; Vaishya were only taxpayers
  • Shatpatha Brahmana speaks of ploughing rituals
  • Barter system but reference of Shataman, Krishnala (coins used) — no archaeological evidence
  • Reference to money lending (Shatapatha Brahmana → usurer as kusidin)
  • Art and craft: smelting, smithery, carpentry, weaving, leather-working, etc.
  • Pottery type: Painted Grey Ware (PGW)
  • Earliest iron evidence: Ahichchatra and Atranjikheda (UP)

Religion ​

  • Status of Indra, Agni, Varuna and other Rigvedic gods degraded
  • Prajapati or Adipurush became Supreme God
  • As per Atharvaveda: Sabha and Samiti are his daughters
  • Rudra merged into Shiva — appeared for first time
  • Rituals and sacrifices at household level with help of priest → status of Brahmana increased
  • Reference of idol worship reported but not dominating
  • Magic and Omen entered socio-religious life
  • Pushan became god of Shudras; Brihaspati was Devaguru (Priest of Gods)

LITERATURE (VEDIC) ​

  • Brahmanic Literature transferred through Shruti (divine revelation: Vedic literature — Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka, Upanishada) and Smriti (prepared by human beings: Vedanga, Dharmasutra, Purana, Smritis)
  • Earliest surviving manuscript is from 11th–12th century
  • Each of 4 Vedas generally has 4 parts: Karma Kanda (Vedic Samhita, Brahmana) and Gyana Kanda (Aranyaka, Upanishads)

Rigveda ​

  • Reciter: Hotr/Hotar; Oldest Veda; Upveda: Ayurveda; Script: Brahmi
  • Consists of 1028 hymns (Sukta) and 10552 Mantras divided into 10 Mandalas
  • Mandalas 2–7: oldest part — called "family books"
  • Mandala 7: mention of Dashrajana Yuddha on Purushni River and Ashwamedha Yajna
  • Mandala 8: dedicated to various gods; mostly composed by Kanva clan
  • Mandala 9: dedicated entirely to Soma
  • Mandala 3: Gayatri Mantra
  • Mandala 1: dedicated to Indra and Agni; Varuna, Surya, Mitra, Rudra and Vishnu also mentioned
  • Mandala 6: Weapons Sukta
  • Mandala 10: compiled in Later Vedic Period
    • Nadi Sukta: Sindhu most mentioned; Nadittama (Saraswati) most pious
    • Purush Sukta: 4-fold varna system but no mention of word "Varna"
    • Nasadiya Sukta: Universe Origin; Yama-Yami Samvaad
    • Hiranya-garbha Sukta: Creation of universe
    • Surya Sukta: Marriage Ceremonies
  • Only surviving recension of Rigveda is the Shakala Shakha
  • 1st mention of Stupa word in RIGVEDA (Tree Stem) raised by King Varuna

Samveda ​

  • Shortest Veda; contains famous Dhrupada Raga (later sung by Mian Tansen)
  • Recensions: Kauthuma, Ranayaniya, Jaiminiya (Talavakara)
  • Upveda: Gandharva Veda; Reciter: Udgatar

Yajurveda ​

  • Reciter: Adhavaryu
  • Divided into Shukla (White) Yajurveda/Vajasaneya — contains only mantras; Madhyandina and Kanva recensions
  • Krishna (Black) Yajurveda — includes mantras + prose explanations; Kathaka, Maitrayani, Taittiriya and Kapishthala recensions
  • Upveda: DhanurVeda (by Vishwamitra)
  • Mention of SHUNYA in Yajurveda

Atharvaveda ​

  • Magic spells to ward off evil spirits or dangers
  • First reference of Silver
  • Mention of disease and medicine
  • First reference of Anga and Magadha
  • Recensions: Shaunaka and Paippalada
  • Upveda: Shilpa Veda, Ayurveda

Brahmanas ​

  • Explanation of Vedic hymns, their applications and origin stories
  • Rigveda: Aitareya (1st to talk about duties of Varna; 1st to mention word SHRENI), Kaushitaki
  • Samveda: Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas
  • Yajurveda: Taittiriya and Shatpatha (1st mention of REBIRTH)
  • Atharvaveda: Only Gopath Brahmana

Aranyakas ​

  • Written by hermits residing in forests for their students
  • Emphasis on meditation and not on sacrifices
  • Concluding portion of the Brahmanas — bridge between karma and knowledge

Upanishads ​

  • Literal meaning: "sit near someone"
  • Introduces concept of Atman and Brahman
  • 108 Upanishads — source of absolute knowledge
  • Mundaka Upanishad: Source of Satyamev Jayate
  • Chhandogya Upanishad: Talks about Tatvamasi (God is within You); first 3 ashrams discussed; types of marriage — Anuloma (man marrying in own varna or below), Pratiloma (woman marrying in lower varna — not sanctioned by Vedas); Legend of Satyakam Jabal
  • Brihadaranyaka Upanishad: Tamsoma Jyotirgamaya; Aham Brahmasmi; Yajnavalkya-Gargi and Yajnavalkya-Maitreyi discussion
  • Shevetashvatara (White Horse): 1st mention of Shiva name
  • Kathopanishad: Yama and Nachiketa discussion

6 Vedangas (Limbs of the Vedas) ​

  • Shiksha (Phonetics), Jyotisha (Astronomy), Vyakaran (Grammar), Nirukta (Etymology), Chhanda (Metrics), Kalpa (Ceremonies)
  • Kalpa Sutra divided into:
    • Shrauta Sutra: rules for sacrifices; talks about 3 fires — Grihapatya (Circular altar), Dakshinagni (Semi Circular), Ahavaniya (Square Altar); Grihapatya agni was ignited first
    • Grihya Sutra: domestic sacrifices — Upanayana, marriage, funerary practices
    • Dharmasutra: pertaining to rituals of Dharma

18 Puranas ​

  • Post-Vedic text; believed composed by Ved Vyasa; mostly compiled in Gupta Period
  • Some compiled later: Bhagavata Purana (10th century), Skanda Purana (14th–16th century)
  • Puranas are sectarian: devoted to Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma
  • Discuss 5 subjects in 4 Yugas (Satya, Treta, Dvapara, Kali): Sarga (primary creation), Pratisarga (recreation after annihilation), Manvantaras (reigns of various Manus), Vamsha (genealogy), Vamshanucharita (history of Suryavanshis and Chandravanshis)
  • 4 Yuga = Mahayuga; 1000 Mahayuga = 1 Kalpa (divided into 14 Manvantaras each led by Manu; 1st Manu is Swayambhu)

Dharma Shastra ​

  • Sanskrit texts about morality and duty; subdivided into Dharmasutras (600 BC–300 BC), Smritis (200 BC–900 CE) and Commentaries (9th–19th CAD)
  • Refers to Purusharthas: Dharma (right conduct), Artha (material wellbeing), Kama (desires/pleasures), Moksha (liberation)
  • Person's Dharma depended on gender, marital status, Varna and Ashram

Epics ​

  • Mahabharata (war in Dvapara): composed by Vedvyasa; 18 Parvas; 1 lakh verses (Shatashahshri/Jayasanhita)
  • Ramayana (war in Treta): composed by Valmiki; 7 Kandas; 24,000 verses; more idealistic
  • Shatpatha Brahmana: Purush Medha and story of Videgha Madhav (King of Videha) and his guru Rishi Gautama Raghugana

BUDDHISM AND JAINISM ​

Causes of Rise of Unorthodox/Nastika Philosophy ​

  • Complex Vedic rituals confused the people
  • Clash of supremacy between Kshatriya and Brahma
  • Practice of killing animals → problem in agri economy → Shudras unhappy
  • Upanishads were highly philosophical — not understood by all
  • Increasing rigidity in Jati system
  • Trade and economic prosperity → Vaishya desired improved social status

BUDDHISM ​

Symbols and Meaning in Buddha's Life ​

  • Elephant: Avakranti (descent)
  • Lotus and Bull: Birth
  • Horse: Mahabhinishkramana (Renunciation)
  • Bodhi Tree: Nirvana
  • Wheel: Dharmachakra Pravartana (First Sermon)
  • Buddha is Tathagata (whose truth is knowledge)

5 Teachings (Panchasila) ​

  • No killing; respect for life
  • Abstention from theft
  • Abstention from sexual misconduct
  • Abstention from falsehood
  • Abstention from intoxication

Triratna (3 Jewels) ​

  • Buddha (Founder), Dhamma (Doctrine), Sangha (Order — monks, nuns, Upasakas)
  • Pathimokshas: 64 types of prohibited crimes
  • Women were also allowed to join Sangha

Eight-Fold Path (Theme of 1st Sermon) ​

  • Right view, Right intention, Right speech, Right action, Right livelihood, Right effort, Right mindfulness, Right concentration

Gautama Buddha (563 BC – 483 BC) ​

  • Known as Siddharta, Sakyamuni and Tathagata
  • Belonged to Sakya Clan; Birth Place: Lumbini
  • Father: Suddhodana; Mother: Mayadevi
  • Teachers: Alarakamam and Rudrak Ramputta
  • Enlightenment: Under Pipal tree at Uruvella (Bodhgaya) on banks of river Niranjana (Falgu)
  • 1st Sermon: Sarnath (Deer Park) to 5 disciples including Mahakasyapa (first disciple)
  • Mahaparinirvana: At Kushinagar at age of 80

4 Noble Truths (Arya Satya) ​

  • World is full of misery (Sabbam Dukkam)
  • Desire is root cause of sorrow (Pratitya Samutpada — Dwadash Nidan)
  • Desire can be conquered (Dukha Nirodha)
  • Desire can be conquered by following Astangika Marga

Important Buddhist Scholars and Work ​

  • Mahakasyapa: Chairman, 1st Council
  • Sabbakami: Chairman, 2nd Council
  • Mogaliputta Tissa: Chairman, 3rd Council
  • Nagarjuna: Madhyamika Shunyavaad (Theory of relativity); work — Madhimikakarika; known as Indian Einstein
  • Aryadeva: Popularised Mahayana
  • Dharmkirti: Kant of India
  • Vasumitra: Credited with Mahavibhashashashtra; Chairman, 4th Council
  • Asanga: Yogacharya/Vigyanvaad school
  • Vasubandhu: Abhidharmakosa (Encyclopedia of Buddhism); Yogacharya/Vigyanvaad school
  • Ashvaghosa: Buddhacharita (Sanskrit); Sanskrit drama Sariputra Prakrana (disciple of Buddha)
  • Buddhaghosa: Visuddhimagga; Samanta Pasadika (Ashoka won Avanti)
  • Dinnaga: Founder of Buddhist logic

Important Buddhist Literature — Canonical Text (Tripitakas) ​

  • Sutta-Pitaka (Ethical Principles of Buddha's Teachings): Digha-Nikaya, Majjhima Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya, Anguttara Nikaya, Khuddaka Nikaya
  • Vinayapitaka (Monastic Rules and Regulations): Sutta Vibhanga — Maha-Vibhanga; Bhikkuni-Vibhanga; Khandaka — Mahavagga, Cullavagga; Parivara
  • Abhidhamma Pitaka (Philosophy of Buddha): Dhammasangani, Vibhanga, Dhatu-katha, Puggalapannati, Kayha-vatthu, Yamaka, Patthana

Non-Canonical Text ​

  • Mahavastu (Sanskrit-Prakrit mixed) — Hagiography of the Buddha
  • Nidanakatha — 1st connected life story of Buddha
  • Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa (Sri Lankan Text in Pali) — historical accounts of Buddha's life, Buddhist Councils, Ashoka and arrival of Buddhism to Sri Lanka
  • Visuddhimagga — deals with development from purity of discipline to enlightenment
  • Milindapanho (Pali) — dialogues between Indo-Greek king Menander and monk Nagasena
  • Nettipakarana (Book of Guidance) — connected account of Buddha's teachings
  • Divyavadana: Magical Deeds; Lalitvisatara: Buddha's Biography; Avadanashataka: Noble deeds

Reasons for Spread and Popularity of Buddhism ​

  • Liberal and democratic; Simple language; Personality of the Buddha; Royal patronage; Inexpensive

Reasons for Decline ​

  • Division among Buddhists; Use of Sanskrit language; Buddha's idol worship; Persecution of Buddhists; Corruption in Buddhist Sangha; Islamic invasion

6 Buddhist Councils ​

  • 1st: 483 BC, Saptakarani Cave, Rajgriha; Chairman: Mahakassapa; Patron: Ajatashatru; Compiled Suttapitaka and Vinayapitaka by Anand and Upali
  • 2nd: 383 BC, Vaishali; Chairman: Sabbakami; Patron: Kalashoka; 1st schism — Sthaviradins and Mahasanghikas
  • 3rd: 250 BC, Patliputra; Chairman: Mogaliputra Tissa; Patron: Ashoka; Compiled Abhidamapittaka; missionaries to spread Buddhism
  • 4th: 1st century, Kundalvan, Kashmir; Chairman: Vasumitra and Ashwaghosa; Patron: Kanishka; Schism: Hinayana and Mahayana; Compiled Mahavibhasha Shastra
  • 5th: 1871, Myanmar; Chairman: Jagarabhivamsa, Narindhabhidhaja; Patron: King Mindon; 729 stone slabs engraved with Buddhist teachings
  • 6th: 1954, Myanmar; Patron: Burmese Government; Preserve Buddha's teachings in Theravada tradition

Important Schools of Buddhism ​

  • 1st division after 2nd Council: Stharivadin and Mahasanghika
  • Major division in 4th Council: Hinayana (Thervada) and Mahayana
  • Hinayana/Thervada: Buddha = Great Human; salvation through self-discipline and meditation; no idol worship; language: Pali; central concept: Arhat; flourished in Sri Lanka and South Asian countries
  • Mahayana: Buddha = God; salvation through help of Buddha and Bodhisattvas; idol worship (yes; 1st human statue); language: Sanskrit; Paramitas; 2 Truth Doctrine; central concept: Bodhisattvas; flourished in Central Asia, East Asia
  • Vajrayana: Buddha = God; salvation through magical power and female Bodhisattvas; language: Sandhya Bhasha/Twilight; developed in Tibet; central concept: Tara
  • Zen Buddhism: sect of Mahayana; originated in China during Tang dynasty as Chan school; spread to Japan in 7th century CE; meditation is most distinctive feature
  • Navayana: Neo-Buddhism — reinterpretation by B.R. Ambedkar

Bodhisattvas ​

  • Maitreya (Ajitaboddhisatva): Future Buddha and earliest bodhisattva; holds water phial; Laughing Buddha claimed as incarnation of Maitreya
  • Padampani/Avalokiteshwara: Compassion
  • Vajrapani: Manifest Power
  • Manjushri: Manifests Wisdom
  • Sadaparibhuta: Never disparaging spirit
  • Samantabhadra: Universal Bodhisattva
  • Kshitigarbha: Deity of diseased children
  • Akshagarbha: Boundless as space
  • Amitabha: Buddha of Heaven

Important Buddhist Terms ​

  • Nirvana: Annihilation of flame of desire; state of supreme bliss
  • Sheel: refers to when a layperson leaves home to live as Buddhist renunciate among bhikkhus
  • Upasampada: rite of ordination for entering community
  • Vassa: 3-month annual retreat observed by Theravada practitioners during rainy season
  • Upostha: Uposatha day for "cleansing of the defiled mind"
  • Pavarana: confession by monks of offences committed during rainy season
  • 1st woman to enter Sangha: Buddha's Aunt Mahaprajapati
  • Devadatta (Cousin of Buddha): wanted to become leader of Sangha
  • Anathpindak (wealthy businessman of Kosala): donated Jetavana Vihara
  • Sanchi (Ancient Name: Kaknam, Kakanaya, Kakanadabota, Botasriparwata) Stupa doesn't have any relation with Buddha's life

JAINISM ​

Origin ​

  • A very ancient religion; total 24 Tirthankaras; last was Vardhaman Mahavira
  • 1st Tirthankara: Rishabhadev; 23rd Tirthankara: Parshvanatha (born in Varanasi)
  • All Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas by birth
  • Rishabhdev and Arishtanemi (Neminath) mentioned in Rigveda

Vardhaman Mahavira (540 – 468 BC) ​

  • Mother: Trishala (sister of Licchavi chief Chetaka); Father: Siddhartha
  • Location: Licchhavi (Vajji Sangha); Epithet: Nayaputta, Muni, Samana, Nigantha
  • Wife: Yashoda; Daughter: Anojja (Priyadarshana); Son-in-Law: Jamali
  • At age 42 attained Kevaljnan under a sal tree on bank of Rijupalika River (omniscience) through Right Knowledge, Right Faith and Right Conduct (Triratna — KFC) → became a Jina and then Tirthankara
  • Used Prakrit language (Ardha-Maghadhi) for ordinary people
  • Death: Pavapuri → became a Siddha (free from cycle of birth and death)
  • Sudharaman: 1st Chief of Jain Sangha after Mahavira
  • Mahamastaka-Abhishek: important festival at Shravanabelgola every 12 years

Philosophy of Jainism ​

  • Word Jain comes from Jina meaning conqueror
  • Non-violence practiced in extreme sense — no agricultural occupation
  • Soul: everything has a soul even rock, pen, etc.; Karma is bane of soul
  • Concept of God: perfect being; creator god not accepted
  • World maintained by Universal Law; no starting/end of world
  • Rebirth in a Varna: because of your Karma → no criticism to Varna system
  • Salvation: only through renouncing the world; monastic existence necessary; asceticism and penance required
  • 1st Chief disciple: Ganadhar (Gautamswami), a well-known Brahmin scholar
  • Lord Mahavira had 11 Ganadhars who compiled 12 scriptures (Agamas)
  • Santhara/Samlekhana/Samadhi Maran: fast unto death

Five Mahavrata (Anuvrata) ​

  • 4 added by Lord Parshvanath: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truth), Asteya (non-stealing), Aparigraha (non-possession)
  • 5th added by Mahavira: Brahmacharya (chastity)

Seven Tattvas (Elements of Jain Philosophy) ​

  • Jiva (living substance)
  • Ajiva (matter or non-living substance)
  • Asrava (influx of Karmic matter in the soul)
  • Bandhan (bondage of soul by Karmic matter)
  • Samvara (stopping of Asrava)
  • Nirjara (gradual removal of Karmic matter)
  • Moksha (attainment of salvation)

Types of Karmas ​

  • Ghati: obstruct soul
  • Aghati: affect the body

Jain Councils ​

  • 1st: 300 BC, Patliputra (Bihar); Chairman: Sthulabhadra; Compilation of Angas (lost)
  • 2nd: 512 AD, Vallabhi (Gujarat); Chairman: Devardhi Kshmasramna; 12 Angas and Upangas

Division in Jainism ​

  • Reason: famine (12 years) in Magadha → group led by Bhadrabahu moved to South India (stuck to tough practices); other group in Magadha adopted more liberal attitude and started wearing white clothes

  • After famine: southern group returned → changed practices → division into 2 sects

  • Digamber: led by Bhadrabahu; meaning: Sky Clad; nudity for male; white unstitched saree for female; women's salvation: No (need rebirth in man's body); all 5 vows; Tirthankaras have downcast eyes, plain, always carved naked (Kayotsarga Pose); 3 major sects (Bisapantha, Terapantha, Mula Sangh), 2 minor sects (Gumanapantha, Totapantha + Taranapantha/Samaiyapantha)

  • Shwetamber: led by Sthulabhadra; meaning: White Clad; white clothes; women's salvation: Yes; 4 vows (excluding Brahmacharya); Tirthankaras have prominent staring eyes and are richly decorated; Major: Murtipujaka/Derawasi/Mandirmargi, Sthanakvasi (avoided idol worship), Terapanthi (simpler worship pattern)

  • Note: Yapniya originated from Digamber but followed values of Shwetamber too

Other Philosophies of Jainism ​

  • Anekantavada (Metaphysics — Theory of Reality): all entities have 3 aspects — substance (dravya), quality (guna), mode (paryaya); non-absolutism or many-sidedness of reality
  • Syadavada (Epistemology — Theory of Knowledge): all judgments are conditional; 7 logical naya (judgement) called Saptabhangi or Saptabhanginaya
  • Ananta Chatushtaya: Ananta Gyan (knowledge), Ananta Darshna (perception), Ananta Virya (power), Ananta Anand (bliss)

Royal Patrons of Jainism ​

  • South India: Kadamba dynasty, Ganga dynasty, Amoghavarsha, Kumarapala (Chalukya)
  • North India: Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, Kharavela, Harshavardhana

SIX ORTHODOX PHILOSOPHIES ​

  • Orthodox: believes in authority of Veda

  • Unorthodox: doesn't believe in authority of Veda

  • Samkya: oldest philosophy started by Kapila; dualistic (purush/spirit and prakriti/nature); God not accepted; forms philosophical basis for Yoga; rebirth accepted; self-knowledge leads to liberation

  • Yoga: releasing Purush from Prakriti by physical and mental discipline; founded by Patanjali; God accepted at initial level; Ashtang (Eight Limbs): Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana, Samadhi

  • Nyaya: founded by Gautama; knowledge through logical reasoning and experience; believes in God; relies on pramanas as epistemology

  • Vaishishika: founded by Kanada; atomic theory — everything is combination of atoms except time, space, mind, soul; God accepted

  • Purva Mimansa: Vedas are eternal; doesn't believe in God; focuses on Karma Kanda as medium of liberation

  • Uttara Mimansa (Vedant): Commentaries on Brahma Bhasya; compilation of Upanishads

    • Shankaracharya: Advaitvada — knowledge for salvation
    • Ramanuja: Vishishtadvait — bhakti for salvation
    • Madhvacharya: Dwaitavada — bhakti
    • Nibarkacharya: Dwait-Adwait/Bheda-abheda — bhakti
    • Vallabhacharya: Shuddha Advait — bhakti for salvation
    • Srichaitanya Mahaprabhu: Achnitya bheda-abheda — bhakti

Other Famous Philosophies ​

  • Ajivika: started by Makhali Gosala (student of Mahavira) or Nanda Vaccha; believed in nudity for penance; Hathapalekhana (one-time food only); hold a bar (Ekdandin); Niyativaad (predeterminism); didn't believe in karma theory; monks allowed to have relations with females
  • Charvaka (Lokayata): pure materialistic; no belief in soul, god, Karma; popularised by Ajita Keshkambali; Theory of Dehatmavaad; denied existence of Akasha (space)
  • Kapalika: worshipped Bhairava; drinking wine and eating disgusting substances as food in human skull

16 MAHAJANAPADAS ​

  • Second urbanisation of India; by 6th BC, political activity moved from western to eastern Gangetic plain
  • Listed by: Anguttar Nikaya (16), Jain text Bhagwatisutras (16), Ashtadhyayi (22)
  • Kamboj: capital Pooncha; Kashmir and Hindukush; was a republic
  • Gandhara: capital Taxila; Rawalpindi; mentioned in Atharvaveda
  • Kuru: capital Indraprastha; Meerut; moved to republic governance
  • Panchala: capitals Ahichchatra and Kampliya; Western UP; shifted from monarchy to republic
  • Matsya: capital Viratnagar; Jaipur; west of Panchalas and south of Kurus
  • Saurasena: capital Mathura; Western UP; centre of Hinduism and Buddhism
  • Ashmaka/Assaka: capital Pratisthan; Bank of Godavari
  • Vajji: capital Vaishali; Bihar; Republic; main races — Licchavis, Vedehans, Jnatrikas, Vajjis
  • Malla: capital Kusinara; Deoria, UP; Republic; mentioned in Buddhist, Jain texts and Mahabharata
  • Avanti: capitals Ujjaini or Mahismati; Malwa and Madhya Pradesh; significant for rise of Buddhism
  • Chedi: capital Sothivati; UP-MP region; eastern parts of Bundelkhand
  • Kosala: capital Sravasti; Eastern UP
  • Vatsa: capital Kausambi; Allahabad; monarchical; ruler Udayana made Buddhism state religion
  • Kasi: capital Kasi; Banaras; cited in Matsya Purana
  • Anga: capital Champa; Munger and Bhagalpur; mentioned in Mahabharata and Atharvaveda; taken over by Bimbisara
  • Magadha: capitals Girivraja/Rajagriha; Gaya and Patna; 1st Buddhist Council held in Rajagriha

MAGADHA — THE MOST POWERFUL MAHAJANAPADA ​

Reasons of Rise ​

  • Geographical: fertile soil; mainland route between west and east; encircled by Ganga, Son and Champa on 3 sides; both Rajgir and Pataliputra in strategic positions; huge copper and iron deposits; received enough rainfall
  • Economic: easy control over trade; better agriculture, mining; economic hegemony due to mastery over Ganga; Bimbisara annexed Anga
  • Cultural/Societal: unorthodox character; Aryan + Non-Aryan peoples; emergence of Jainism and Buddhism; society not dominated by upper class; many kings were of low origins
  • Political: impregnable location; large population → strong standing armies; better economy + availability of iron → advanced weaponry; many powerful rulers; 1st kings to use elephants in army

Dynasties of Magadha ​

  • Brihidratha (18th–8th CBC): Brihidratha — established Vasumati/Girivraja/Rajgriha (as per Ramayana); Jarasandha — son of Brihadrath; killed by Bhima (Mahabharata)
  • Pradyota (648–558 BC): Pradyota — founder; ruler of Avanti and Magadha
  • Harayanaka Dynasty (558–413 BC) — Pitrahanta Dynasty
    • Bimbisara (558–491 BC): founder; capital Girivraja/Rajagriha; known as Sreniya (1st king with standing army); contemporary and follower of Buddha; admirer of Mahavira; matrimonial alliances; 3 wives: Kosaladevi, Chellana, Khema; most notable conquest: Anga
    • Ajatasatru (492–460 BC): son of Bimbisara and Chellana; killed father; 1st Buddhist Council at Rajagriha (483 BCE); won wars against Kosala and Vaishali; destroyed Vaishali; war engine (catapult) + chariots with maces; began fortification of Rajgriha; established Patliputra city
    • Udayabhadra/Udayin (460–444 BCE): son of Ajatasatru; killed father; established capital Pataliputra; built fort at confluence of Ganga and Son; succeeded by Aniruddha, Manda and Nagadasaka (last ruler)
  • Sisunaga Dynasty (413–345 BCE):
    • Sisunaga (413–395 BCE): Viceroy of Kasi; capital Girivaraja; destroyed and assimilated Avanti; 2nd capital at Vaishali
    • Kalasoka (395–367 BC): son of Sisunaga; also known as Kakavarna; capital shifted to Pataliputra; 2nd Buddhist Council at Vaishali; killed by Mahapadmananda
    • Followed by Nandivarman and Mahanandin (last ruler)
  • Nanda Dynasty (345–321 BC) — 1st Non-Kshatriya dynasty; Adharmika; Buddhist texts: belonging to annatakula (unknown lineage)
    • Mahapadma Nanda (Founder): 1st historical emperor of India; origins not clear; titles: Sarva Kashtriyantaka (Destroyer of all Kshatriyas), Ekrat (Sole sovereign); expanded empire: Kuru (N), Godavari Valley (S), Magadha (E), Narmada (W); added Kalinga to Magadha; Ugrasena (large army) in Pali
    • Dhanananda: last Nanda ruler; Greek text: known as Agrammes or Xandrames; Alexander invaded NW India during his reign; oppressive taxes and anti-Kshatriya policy; became unpopular

FOREIGN INVASIONS DURING MAGADHA DYNASTIES ​

Achaemenid/Persian Invasion (500 BC) ​

  • Founder: Cyrus; invaded west of river Indus; Indian ruler: Bimbisara
  • Control over Gandhara, Kamboja, and Madra
  • Cyrus's grandson Darius-I conquered Punjab and Sindh — 1st to invade India
  • Impact: Indo-Iranian trade; Kharoshthi script; Bell-shaped capital; Ashokan inscriptions

Alexander's Invasion (327–325 BC) ​

  • Darius-III (last Achaemenid emperor) defeated by Alexander
  • Crossed Hindukush; entered north-western India
  • Ambhi (Omphis) of Taxila submitted to Alexander
  • Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum): Porus defeated; Alexander impressed with bravery → reinstated him
  • Army refused to cross Hyphasis (Beas) → no war with Nanda Dynasty
  • Alexander returned; died 323 BC in Babylon
  • Impact: political unification of northern India under Mauryas; direct contact with Greece; new land and sea routes for trade; Gandhara school of art; introduced Yavanika (curtain) in theatre; 1st to appoint Strategos (military governorship system); 1st to use name India (translated Hind as Indus); established chronology of Indian rulers

MAURYAN EMPIRE (321 BC – 185 BC) ​

Reasons of Rise ​

  • Unpopular rulership of Dhanananda
  • Unrest in North Western India after Alexander attack
  • After Alexander, some regions under control of Seleucus Nicator I (founded Seleucid Dynasty)
  • Support of Chanakya (Vishnugupta / Indian Machiavelli) to Chandragupta

Chandragupta Maurya (321–297 BC) ​

  • Origin not clear; Greek Sources: non-warrior lineage; Buddhist: Kshatriya; Others: Son of Shudra Women (Mura)
  • Greek accounts mention him as Sandrokottos
  • 305 BC: War with Seleucus Nicator I and defeated him
  • Chandragupta got: Baluchistan, eastern Afghanistan and region west of Indus; married Seleucus Nicator's daughter
  • Seleucus got: 500 elephants + war assets (helped in Battle of Ipsus, 301 BC)
  • Greek Ambassador: Megasthenes (wrote Book INDICA)
  • Policy of expansion: whole India barring Kalinga and Sangama Dynasties
  • 297 BC: Transferred rulership to Bindusara; went to Shravanabelagola with Jain monk Bhadrabahu; embraced Jainism; practiced Santhara

Bindusara (297–273 BC) ​

  • Known as Amitraghata (Slayer of foes) or Amitrochates (Greek)
  • Greek ambassador: Deimachus (sent by Antiochus)
  • Appointed son Ashoka as governor of Ujjain
  • Extended Mauryan Empire to Mysore
  • Wanted eldest son Sushima to lead but didn't happen

Ashoka (268 BC – 232 BC) ​

  • Sources: Edicts deciphered in 1837 by James Princep (read Delhi-Topara pillar; thought Ashoka as Tissa); later George Turner recognised piyasdassi as Mauryan Ruler Ashoka (basis: Deepvamsa); finally C. Beadon read Maski inscription in 1915 — read Ashoka name
  • Literature: Ashokavadana (Sanskrit, 2nd CAD), Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa
  • Born in 304 BC; Son of Bindusara and Subhadrangi
  • Other names: Devanampiya (Beloved of the Gods) and Piyadasi
  • Empire: Afghanistan (west) to Bangladesh (east); almost whole subcontinent except Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka
  • Capital: Pataliputra; Provincial capitals: Taxila and Ujjain
  • Greek ambassador: Dionysius; Built 1st herbal garden and hospital
  • Sequence of religious trip: Lumbini, Kapilvasthu, Bodhgaya, Sarnath, Kushinagar, Shravasti
  • Conversion to Buddhism after Kalinga War (261 BC); mentioned in 13th Rock Edict; more than 1 lakh people killed
  • Mentor: Mogaliputra Tissa; Spiritual teacher (as per Ashokavadana): Upagupta
  • Patron of 3rd Buddhist Council at Patliputra (250 BC)
  • Ashoka's Dhamma: paternal king; respect for parents, teachers; ahimsa; truthfulness; tolerance towards all religions; conquest through Dhamma; sent son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka

Ashokan Inscriptions — Major Rock Edicts (14 edicts) ​

  • Language: Prakrit, Greek, Aramaic; Script: Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Greek, Aramaic
  • Locations (India): Kalsi (Uttarakhand), Dhauli (Odisha), Jaugada (Odisha), Yerragudi (AP), Sannati (Karnataka), Sopara (Maharashtra), Girnar (Gujarat)
  • Locations (Pakistan): Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra
  • Kandhar: bilingual (Greek and Aramaic); Yerragudi: two scripts (Brahmi and Kharoshthi)
  • RE 1: Animal sacrifice prohibited during festive seasons
  • RE 2: Medical treatment of humans and animals; digging of wells; South Indian Empire (Chola, Pandyas, Satyaputras, Keralaputras, Tamrapani/Sri Lanka)
  • RE 3: Generosity to Brahmins; fixing tenure of officials (5 years) — Yuktas, Pradeshikas, Rajukas
  • RE 4: Dhammaghosha (Dhamma) over Bherighosha (War)
  • RE 5: Dhammamahamatras appointed to spread dharma
  • RE 6: Welfare measures for people's conditions
  • RE 7: Tolerance towards religions among all sects
  • RE 8: Ashoka's 1st visit to Bodh Gaya and the Bodhi tree
  • RE 9: Stresses on moral conduct
  • RE 10: Individual's desire for fame and glory should be disapproved
  • RE 11: Dhamma is best policy; right behaviour with slaves
  • RE 12: Women's welfare; tolerance towards other's dhamma
  • RE 13: Remorse over Kalinga War; Dhamma victory over Greek Kings — Antiochus of Syria (Amtiyoko), Ptolemy of Egypt (Turamaye), Magas of Cyrene (Maka), Antigonus of Macedon (Amtikini), Alexander of Epirus (Alikasudaro); also mentions Pandyas, Cholas, etc.
  • RE 14: Purpose of rock edicts

Pillar Edicts ​

  • PE 1: Protecting his people
  • PE 2: Defines Dhamma as minimum of sins and purity
  • PE 3: Avoiding cruelty, sin, harshness
  • PE 4: Responsibilities of the Rajukas
  • PE 5: List of animals not to be killed on certain days — Delhi-Topra Pillar Edict
  • PE 6: Welfare of the people
  • PE 7: Tolerance for all sects and Dhamma Mahamattas

Minor Rock Edicts ​

  • Maski: Ashoka used his name; 1st to give this information; on Maski River
  • Udegolam, Nittur (Karnataka), Gujjara (MP)
  • Bhabru-Bairat (Rajasthan): Ashoka as king of Magadha; accepted Buddhism
  • Minor Edict 1: Ashoka's inclination towards Buddhism after 2.5 years of rule
  • Minor Edict 3: Ashoka professes deep faith in Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha

Other Relevant Inscriptions ​

  • Kosam/Queens Edict/Kausambi or Schism Edict: Tivara/Tivala (only son of Ashoka mentioned in inscriptions); members of Sangha to refrain from causing division; queen Quarwaki mentioned
  • Prayag Prashashti: Samudragupta's inscription by court poet Harishena; Jahangir/Akbar shifted pillar to Allahabad fort
  • Kalinga Edicts: mentions "All men are my children"
  • Sannati: site of all 14 major rock edicts as well as two separate Kalinga edicts
  • Rummindei: Lumbini exempted from Bali; Bhaga tax reduced to 1/8; birthplace of Buddha
  • Nigalisagar Edict: Ashoka enlarged stupa of Buddha Kanakamuni
  • Kandhar Edict: talks about success of nonviolence policy with fishermen and hunters

Mauryan Administration ​

  • Central government: highly centralised; headed by Emperor; Mantri-Parishad (Council of Ministers) supported Emperor
  • 18 Tirthas: highest category officials
  • 20 Adhyakshya: responsible for economic and military functions
  • Mahamattas: higher ranking officials; Amatyas: administrative and judicial roles
  • Yuktas: subordinate officers for empire's revenue
  • Rajjukas: officers for land measurement and boundary-fixing (surveyors)
  • Various Adhyakshas: Saradhyaksha (Liquor), Sitaadhyaksha (Agriculture), Samasthadhyaksha (Markets), Sulkaadhyaksha (Tolls), Navadhyaksha (Ships), Lohadhyaksha (Iron), Pauthavadhyaksha (Weights and Measurement), Akaradhyaksha (Mines), Panyaadhyaksha (Commerce), Sunadhyaksha (Slaughterhouse), Kunyadhyaksha (Forest), Lakshanadhyaksha (Coin Minting), Pattanadhyaksha (Port), Gopa (Registration of births and deaths)
  • Army: Senapati (Commander-in-Chief); 5 divisions: Infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephant forces, navy and transport; salary paid in cash
  • Revenue: Samharta (Chief of Revenue); Sannidhata (Treasurer); taxation rate 1/6th of produce; Crown land (Sita); death penalty for tax evasion
  • Police: Bandhangara (Jail) and Charaka (Lock-up)
  • Courts: Dharmasthiya (Civil) headed by Vyavharika; Kantakshadhona (Criminal) headed by Pradeshtha
  • Espionage: 2 types — Sansthana (stationary) and Sanchari (wanderer); Gudhapurushas; Vishakanyas (poisonous girls)
  • Local Administration: Village — Gramika (with autonomy); Pradeshika (District Heads); Sthanika (Tax collectors); Purmukhya (Town chief); Durgapala (Fort's Governors); Antapala (Governors of frontiers)
  • Kautilya's Arthashastra: Saptang (Swami, Amatya, Janapada, Durg, Kosa, Danda, Mitra); lost in 12th century; restored in 1905 by R. Shamashashtri; no mention of Chandragupta, Mauryas or Patliputra; first to mention Chakravarti word
  • Punch-marked coins: Silver; standardisation by Mauryan empire
  • Coins: Karshpana/Kahapanas, Suvarnas, Rupyarupa, Tamrarupa, Sisarupa

Reasons for Fall of Mauryan Empire ​

  • Ashoka's peaceful policies
  • Foreign invasions
  • Internal revolt
  • Weak rulers after Ashoka
  • Brahmanical reaction
  • Financial crisis
  • Highly centralised administration
  • Independence of provinces
  • Partition of empire after Ashoka
  • Oppressive rule in provinces
  • Spread of new material knowledge in outlying areas
  • Negligence towards north-west frontier

POST MAURYAN PERIOD (185 BC – 275 AD) ​

  • Northern: Shunga (185 BC–73 BC, founder: Pushmitra Shunga), Kanav (73 BC–27 BC, founder: Vasudev Kanva)
  • North-Western: Indo Greeks (190 BC, Demetrius), Indo Scythians (98 BC, Maues/Moga), Indo Parthians (1st century CE, Gondopherens), Kushana (30 AD–230 AD, Kujala Kadaphies)
  • Maharashtra, AP, Central India: Satavahana (235 BC–225 AD, Simuka)
  • Tamilnadu: Chola; Southern Tamilnadu and southern Kerala: Pandyan; Kerala: Chera (Keralaputras) — all Sangam Age (300 BC–300 AD)

Shunga Dynasty (ancestors from Ujjain) ​

  • Pushyamitra Sunga (185–151 BC): followed Brahminism; countered attacks from Greek kings (Menander and Demetrius); thwarted attack from Kalinga king Kharavela; conquered Vidarbha; renovated stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut; sculptured stone gateway (Torana) at Sanchi; Ayodhya Inscription: performed Ashvamedha Yajna; patronised Sanskrit grammarian Patanjali (wrote Mahabhasya)
  • Agnimitra (149–141 BC): son of Pushyamitra; Vidarbha broke away during his reign; Kalidasa's poem Malavikagnimitram devoted to Agnimitra; succeeded by son Vasumitra
  • Last ruler: Devabhuti — killed by minister Vasudeva Kanva (73 BC)
  • Effects: Hinduism revived; integration of foreigners; Sanskrit gained prominence; patronised art and architecture

Kanav Dynasty (73–27 BC) ​

  • Vasudev Kanav (founder), Bhumimitra (14 years), Narayana (12 years), Susruraman (last — eliminated by Satavahana king)

SATVAHANA (235 BC – 225 AD) ​

  • Satavahna: Driven by Seven i.e. Sun as per Hindu Mythology
  • Major regions: Maharashtra, AP, Telangana, Karnataka, Gujarat, MP
  • Capitals: Pratishthana (Paithan) and Amaravati (Dhanyakataka)
  • As per Puranas: referred as Andhras; 30 Satvahana rulers mentioned in Matsya Purana
  • Last ruler: Pulamavi IV (death 225 AD)
  • Simuka: Founder; patronised Buddhism and Jainism
  • Satakarni I (70–60 BC): 1st to expand by military conquests; conquered Kalinga after death of Kharavela; pushed back Sungas; Naneghat Inscription by queen Nayankia — describes him as Dakshinapathapati; 1st inscription to talk about land grants in Indian history; performed Ashvamedha; revived Vedic Brahmanism in Deccan
  • Hala: interest in arts; compiled Gatha Saptashati (love theme); minister Gunadhya composed Brihatkatha in Paiscachi language
  • Gautamiputra Satakarni (106–130 AD): restored power of Satvahana; called himself "only Brahmana"; destroyed Kshaharata lineage of Nahapana (Western Satrapas); regions: Krishna (south), Malwa and Saurashtra (north), Berar (east), Konkan (west); Nasik inscription by his mother Gautami Balashri; titles: Ekabrahmana, Rajaraja, Maharaja, Khatiya-dapa-manamada
  • Vashishthiputra Pulumayi (130–154 CE): successor; 1st Andhra Emperor; coins found in Andhra; Kanheri inscription: married to daughter of Rudradaman; Junagadh inscriptions: Rudradamana defeated him twice; only Satvahana king mentioned in Amaravati inscription
  • Yajna Sri Satakarni (165–194 CE): recovered north Konkan and Malwa; motif of ship on coins
  • Administration: based on Dharmashastras; not very clear; districts called ahara; officials: amatyas and mahamatras; 1st to start giving free land to Brahmana and Buddhist; 3 grades of feudatories — Raja (right to strike coins), Mahabhoja, Senapati
  • Economy: agriculture backbone; maritime trade; iron; paddy transplantation at Krishna and Godavari mouths; coins: die-struck and cast-coins + punch-marked coins of silver, copper, lead and Potin; 1st native rulers to start portrait coins; NO GOLD COINS
  • Language: Prakrit with Brahmi script; rare use of Sanskrit
  • Religion: Hindu/Brahmanical; generous towards other religions
  • Society: 4-fold varna system; important Buddhist sites: Nagarjunakonda, Amravati (AP), Nasik, Junar (Maharashtra); good status: artisans, merchants, Gandhikas (perfumers); women occupied important position

SANGAM AGE (300 BC – 300 AD) ​

  • Named after 3 Sangam academies; flourished under Pandya kings of Madurai; popularly known as Muchchangam
  • Sage Agastya (Father of Tamil Literature) credited to have Aryanised South India
  • 1st Sangam (Madurai): attended by gods and legendary sages; no literary work available
  • 2nd Sangam (Kapadapuram): only Tolkappiyam by Tolakappiyar survives
  • 3rd Sangam (Madurai): few Tamil literary works have survived

Classification of Sangam Literature ​

  • Patinenmelkanakku: composed between 200 BC–100 BC; oldest surviving Tamil poetry
  • Patinenkilkanakku: composed mostly in Post Sangam Period (100 CE–500 CE); collection of 18 poetry compositions including Thirukkural, Palamoli, Naladiyar
  • Aham (Inner): abstract discussion on human aspects (love, sexual relations, etc.)
  • Puram (Outer): human experiences (heroism, social life, ethics, philanthropy, etc.)

Sangam Literature ​

  • Tolkappiyam: composed by Tolkappiyar; information on social life, human psychology, political and economic conditions; Tamil grammar; Sanskrit influence very peripheral
  • Ettuthokai (8 Anthologies — Long Stories): Natrinai, Kuruntogai, Ainkurunuru, Pathitrupathu, Paripadal, Kalittogai, Ahanuru (compiled by Rudrasarman), Purananuru
  • Pattuppattu (10 Idylls — Short Stories): ThiruMurugatrupadai, Perumbanarruppadai, Pattinappalai, Maduraikkanji, Porunararrupadai, Kurinchippattu, Nedunalvadai, Malaipadukadam, Mullaippattu, Sirupanarruppadai
  • Patinenkilkanakku: moral values; most important is Thirukkural
  • Thirukkural (Muppal): written by Thiruvalluvar; 1st Dravidian work for ethics; also known as Laghuveda of Tamil Literature
  • Post Sangam Literature (200–500 CE)
    • Silappadikaram: writer — Ilango Adigal (brother of Chera King Senguttuvan); story of an anklet; discusses Jainism; chief character: Kannagi
    • Manimekalai: composed by Chithalai Chathanar (Sattanar); sequel to Silappadikaram; espouses Buddhism
    • Other epics: Jivaka Chintamani, Valaiyapati, Kundalakesi

Sangam Dynasties ​

  • Chola: core area — central and northern TN and Kaveri delta; early capital: Uraiyur; later capital: Puhar (Poompuhar); state emblem: Tiger; maintained efficient navy; most famous king: Karikalan; Battle of Venni: Karikalan defeated confederacy of Cheras, Pandyas and eleven chieftains; founded port city of Puhar; constructed 160 km embankment along Kaveri
  • Chera: core area — central and northern Kerala and Kongu region of TN; capital: Vanji; ports: Muziris and Tondi; state emblem: Bow and Arrow; greatest ruler: Senguttuvan (Red Chera/Good Chera); introduced Pattini cult (worship of Kannagi as ideal wife); 1st to send embassy to China from South India
  • Pandyan: area: Madurai; state emblem: Fish; port: Korkai; as per Megasthanes: known for pearl and fishery, started by woman; Vedic religion; power declined with invasion of Kalabhras

Sangam Administration ​

  • Form of government: hereditary monarchy
  • King had 5 councils: ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), envoys (thuthar), military commanders (senapathi), spies (orrar)
  • Chief source of state income: land revenue + custom duty on foreign trade
  • Major source for Royal Treasury: booty captured in wars
  • Market place (Avanam) and roads guarded against robbery/smuggling
  • Muvendar: 3 chiefs — heads of Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas

Sangam Economy ​

  • Division of land (as per Tolkappiyam): Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal), Palai (desert)
  • Chief occupation: Agriculture; rice was most common crop
  • Important ports: Puhar (TN), Tondi, Muziris (Kerala), Korkai (TN), Arikkamedu (TN), Marakkanam, Tamralipti (West Bengal)
  • Trade with Romans; gold and silver coins of Roman Emperors found in TN
  • Exports: cotton fabrics, spices (pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, turmeric), ivory, pearls
  • Imports: horses, gold, sweet wine; traders formed guilds called nannul
  • Discovery of monsoon winds by Greek sailor Hippatus around 46–47 CE
  • Black pepper also known as Yavanpriya

Sangam Society ​

  • Varna concept: Arasar (Rulers), Anthanar, Vanigar (trade), Vellalar (Agriculturists), Kadaisiyar (lowest class — labourers)
  • Women: respected and educated; can choose life partners
  • Women poets: Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, Kakkaipadiniyar
  • Widows' life was miserable
  • Prevalence of Sati (known as Tippayadal) in higher strata
  • Vattekirutal: a king defeated in battle committing ritual suicide by starving himself to death

Sangam Religion ​

  • Primary deity: Murugan (Tamil God); magical charms practiced
  • Other Gods: Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Varunan, Korravai
  • Nadu Kal/Virrukal worship: erected in memory of warriors
  • Megalithic practice of providing for the dead continued; cremation also introduced

FOREIGN DYNASTIES IN NORTH WEST REGION ​

Persian (Achaemenid) ​

  • 550 BCE: Achaemenid Empire founded by Cyrus
  • Indian smaller empires under control: Gandhara, Kamboja, Madra
  • Darius I (Cyrus's grandson) annexed Punjab and Sindh
  • Impact: Indo-Iran trade; Kharoshthi script (derived from Aramaic; written right to left); bell-shaped capitals; system of satrapies (26 satrapies); Arabs and Persians 1st to use name HIND for land across Sindhu

Greek Invasion — Alexander (356–323 BCE) ​

  • Son of Philip of Macedonia; became king 336 BC
  • 330 BCE: defeated Darius III in Battle of Arbela; annexed Persia
  • 326 BCE: Ambhi of Taxila accepted; Porus fought Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum) — defeated but reinstated
  • 326 BCE: Army refused to cross Beas → Alexander returned; died 323 BCE, Babylon, age 32
  • Women of Massaga (capital of Ashwaka) took part in battle against Alexander and all were killed
  • Eudamas was the last general of Alexander in India
  • Impact: political unification under Mauryas; direct contact with Greece; new trade routes; Gandhara school of art; Yavanika (curtain) in Indian theatre; strategos (military governorship system); 1st to use name India

Indo-Greek Kingdom (2nd CBC – 1st CAD) ​

  • 305 BC: Seleucus's conflict with Chandragupta — ceded large parts west of Indus
  • King Demetrius (190 BC): son of Euthydemus I; invaded southern Afghanistan and parts of Punjab
  • Two Indo-Greek kingdoms: Euthydemus/Demetrius kingdom (Jhelum to Mathura) and Eucratides Kingdom (Bactria to Jhelum)
  • Apollodotus I: first proper Indo-Greek king (whose rule was not from Bactria)
  • Menander I / Milinda (165–145 BCE): empire from Kabul valley to Rajasthan and Pataliputra; discussion with Buddhist Monk Nagasena (compiled in Milnd Panho — Pali); accepted Hinayana; Reh inscription (UP) gives information about him; Dharmikasa title: "Follower of the Dharma"
  • Hermaius: last ruler in Bactria; defeated by Parthians
  • Last Indo-Greek king: Strato II (1st to issue lead coins); ruled Punjab until 55 BC
  • Indian king's title of Maharaja inspired from Basileus title of Greek king
  • Coins: 1st to issue dynastic coins in India; no gold coins in India from Indo-Greeks; UPSC stand: Kushans were 1st to issue Gold Coins

Indo Scythians ​

  • Group of Iranian nomadic pastoral tribe — also known as Shakas
  • Learned Satrap System from Persians → properly introduced in India → led to references of feudal system in India
  • 5 branches: Afghanistan, Punjab, Mathura, Upper Deccan, Western India
  • Resistance from India: In 57 BC, King of Ujjain defeated Shakas and took title Vikramaditya and Shakari → starting of Vikram Samvat (58 BC)
  • Maues/Moga (98/50 BC – 60/57 BC): earliest king; ruled over Gandhara
  • 2 major Kshatrapa dynasties: Bhadramukhas/Kardamaka (founded by Chashtana) and Kshaharatas (included king Nahapana)
  • Chashtana (78–130 AD): Western Kshatrapas (Satraps) dynasty ruling over Ujjain; Saka Era believed to have started at his ascension (78 AD)
  • Rudradaman I (130–150 AD): greatest ruler of Western Kshtrapas; grandson of Chashtana; Junagarh Inscription (Girnar) fully in kavya style prose and written in Sanskrit; mentions repair of Sudarshana Lake; defeated Satavahana king twice
  • Jivadamana: 1st to issue date-bearing coins in India
  • Note: Girnar has 3 inscriptions — Ashokan, Rudradaman, Skandagupta
  • Decline: Rudrasimha III (last Western Satrap ruler) defeated by Chandragupta II

Indo Parthians ​

  • Shakas followed by Parthians in northwest India
  • Most Famous Parthian King: Gondophernes (inscription at Takht-i-Bahi, near Peshawar, dated 45 CE); Saint Thomas came to India to propagate Christianity during his reign
  • Kushanas ultimately ousted successors of Gondophernes

Kushana Empire (15 AD – 232 AD) ​

  • One of 5 clans of Yueh-Chi (moon tribe/Tocharians) tribe from steppes of North Central Asia
  • Empire: extended from Oxus to Ganga; from Khorasan (Central Asia) to Varanasi
  • Journey to empire: 1st occupied Bactria → moved to Kabul valley → seized Gandhara → lower Indus basin → greater Gangetic basin
  • Kujula Kadphises 1 (15–64 CE): consolidated 5 clans; adopted epithet Dharmathida; Copper Coins
  • Vima Kadphises 2 (64–78 CE): conquered Gandhara from Parthians; extended kingdom to Mathura; firm devotee of Shiva (proclaimed himself Mahishvara); GOLD COINS — considered 1st ruler to issue large number of gold coins
  • Kanishka (78–105 CE) — Most Famous / Second Ashoka: extended empire to Ganga valley + Malwa + Varanasi, Kaushambi, Shravasti (UP), Sanchi (MP); two capitals: Purushapura (Peshawar) and Mathura; title: Devputra; headless statue at Mathura; sources: Rabatak inscription (Afghanistan); 4th Buddhist Council at Kundalavana monastery near Srinagar; patronised: Vasumitra, Ashvagosha, Charaka (father of Ayurveda — wrote Charaka Samhita), Nagarjuna (Madhyamakakarika), Gandhara and Mathura schools of sculpture; coins: Images of Buddha + Greek and Hindu gods (secular ruler); successors: Vasishka, Huvishka, Kanishka II (title of Kaiser)
  • Vasudeva (189/195 CE – 225 CE): last Kushana Emperor; title: Shaono Shao Vasudevo Koshano; totally Indianised; Gold (Dinar) + Copper coins; Nandipada on coins

Impacts of Central Asian Contacts ​

  • Pottery: Red, polished, medium to fine fabric
  • Architecture: use of burnt bricks for flooring; tiles for roofing
  • Military equipment: riding horses + introduction of turban, trousers, long coats and long boots
  • Indian Society: institution of child marriage started in Kushana period; abolition of Upanayana for females
  • Trade: Gold from Altai mountains and Roman Empire; Silk Route controlled by Kushanas; better tolls → better economy
  • Polity: idea of divine origin of kinship; system of military governorship (strategos) by Indo-Greeks
  • Science and Technology: copper/gold coins imitated Roman coins; glass making process made unparalleled growth; leather objects (boots); ancient Indian physicians relied on plants (oshadi) — Sanskrit medicine named aushadhi
  • Art: Gandhara and Mathura school of art; Hellenistic (Greek) influence on decoration of Torana; Greek introduced Yavanika (curtain) in Indian theatre
  • Literature: Sanskrit promoted; Kavya style; secular literature (Kamasutra by Vatsayana); term horasastra (astrology) derived from Greek horoscope
  • Religion: Heliodorus (Greek ambassador) set up Garuda pillar in honour of Vishnu near Besnagar (Vidisha/Bhilsa) in MP; Vima Kadaphies follower of Shaivism; rulers accepted Mahayana Buddhism

GUPTA EMPIRE (275 AD – 550 AD) ​

  • Reason of rise: Decline of Kushana and territorial expansions
  • Sources: inscriptions on copper plates/stone/clay seals; coins; excavations; contemporary literature; foreign travellers like Fa-Hien
  • Srigupta (240–280 CE): Founder; title: Maharaja
  • Ghatotkacha (280–319 CE): Son of Sri Gupta; title: Maharaja
  • Chandragupta I (319–335 CE): son of Ghatotkacha; title: Maharajadhiraja; founder of Gupta Era (319–320 CE); married Kumaradevi (Licchavi princess); empire: UP, Bengal, parts of Bihar; 1st great king of Gupta Empire
  • Samudragupta (335/336–375 CE): son of Chandragupta I; policy of war and conquest; titles: Kaviraja (king among poets), Napoleon of India (V.A. Smith), Apratirathah (invincible), Vyaghra-Parakramah (brave as tiger); conquered in 5 groups; Prayag Prashashti by court poet Harisena (in Allahabad Pillar); patron of Vasubandhu; 1st to take title of Parambhagvata; Gold Coins with legend "restorer of Ashvamedha"
  • Chandragupta II (376–413/415 CE): killed elder brother Ramgupta; titles: Vikramaditya (powerful as sun), Simhavikrama, Sakari; policy: conquest + marriage alliance; dynasty reached its peak; Iron Pillar inscription (Delhi); coins: Gold (Dinara), Silver (Rupaka), Copper; Chinese traveller: Fa-Hien wrote Fo-Khow-Ki; Udaigiri cave inscriptions refer to him as Digvijaya
    • Navratnas: Kalidasa, Ghatakarapara, Dhanvantri (father of Ayurveda), Shanku, Kahapanaka, Vararuchi (Prakrit Prakasha), Vetala Bhatta, Amarasimha (Amara Kosha — 10,000 words in Sanskrit in 3 parts), Varahamihira (Pancha Siddhantika, Brihadsamhita, Brihat Jataka)
  • Kumaragupta I (415–455 CE): son of Chandragupta II; titles: Shakraditya, Mahendraditya; Foundation of Nalanda University; attack of Huns made unsuccessful by prince Skandagupta
  • Skandagupta (c. 455–467 CE): title: Vikramaditya after defeating Toramana (probably Huna); Girnar inscription; Bhitari Pillar inscription (Ghazipur, UP): Gupta Genealogy; successors: Purugupta, Kumaragupta II, Buddhagupta, Narasimhagupta (Baladitya), Kumaragupta III, Vishnugupta (Last Ruler)
  • Decline: Hun Invasion (Toramana defeated by Skandagupta; Mihirkula — mentioned in Rajatarangini and persecutor of Buddhists; defeated by coalition of Yashodharman + Narasimha Gupta Baladitya + Maukharis); rise of feudatories; economic instability

Gupta Economy ​

  • Agriculture: main source of revenue
  • Land Types: Kshetra (under cultivation), Khila (no cultivation), Aparhata (forest land), Gapata Sarah (pasture land), Vasti (habitated land)
  • Land measurement: Nivartana, Kulyavapa, Dronavapa
  • Irrigation: Tadaga (Reservoir), Ghati-yantra/Arghatta (Water Wheel)
  • Important ports: Chaul, Tampralipti, Bhrigukachchha, Arikemedu, Kaveripatnam
  • SHRENI (Guilds): facilitated craftsmen and traders; each guild has its own chief; sometimes operated as cooperative; regulated wages and prices; state provided protection

Gupta Administration ​

  • King: central figure; titles — Paramabhattaraka, Parama-daivata, Chakravarti, Paramesvara
  • Council of Ministers: offices perhaps hereditary
  • Mahanandanayaka (Chief Justice); Mahapratihara (Chief of palace guards)
  • Army: paid in cash; King led army at war; Sandhi-Vigrahika (Minister in charge of peace and war)
  • Revenue: land revenue and fines were main sources
  • Provinces (Bhuktis): governed by Uparikas (directly appointed by King)
  • Districts (Vishayas): headed by Ayuktaka/Vishyayapati
  • Adhikarana (council of 4 representatives): Nagarasresthi, Sarthavaha, Prathamakulike, Prathama Kayastha
  • Village headman: Gramapati; Grama-vriddhas: village disputes

Gupta Society ​

  • Ideal varna system not practiced; many Jatis emerged due to Varna-Samkara
  • Vatya Kshatriya (semi-Kshatriya): families of Greek and Scythian origin
  • Brahmadiyas/Agrahara: land grants to Brahmanas to settle in remote areas
  • Antyajas (Untouchables): considered impure; outcasted like Chandals
  • 1st Epigraphic evidence of Sati Practice: Eran Inscription of Bhanugupta
  • Fa-Hien's observations: vegetarianism; non-violence; prevalence of caste; slavery; untouchability (Chandalas); remarriage of widows unfavorable; prevalence of Devadasi system; multi-religious

Gupta Literature ​

  • Kalidasa: classical Sanskrit writer; greatest poet and dramatist; Abhijnanashakuntala, Vikramorvashi, Raghuvamsha, Malavikagnimitra, Kumarasambhava, Meghaduta
  • Vishakhadatta: Mudrarakshasa (Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya), Devi Chandraguptam (story of Chandragupta II)
  • Shudraka (king and poet): Mrichchhakatika, Vinavasavadatta, etc.
  • Bhasa: wrote 13 plays; famous: Swapnavasavadattam
  • Bharavi: Kiratarjuniya
  • Dandin: Kavyadarshana, Dasakumarcharita
  • Vatsyayana: Nyaya Sutra Bhashya, Kamasutra
  • Aryabhatta: Aryabhattiya — Sine, Cosine, etc.
  • Note: Game of chess (Chaturanga) originated in India in this period

VAKATAKA KINGDOM (250–500 AD) ​

  • Also known as Vindhyakas in Puranas
  • Vindhyashakti (250–270 CE): Founder
  • Pravarasena I (270–330 AD): titles: Samrat, Dharmamaharaja, Haritiputra; founder of real power; after his death: 2 divisions
  • Two branches: Pravarapura-Nandivardhana Branch (modern Nagpur) and Vatsagulma Branch (modern Washim, Maharashtra)
  • Rudrasena II (390–395 CE): married Prabhavatigupta (daughter of Chandragupta II)
  • Harisena (475–500 AD): patronage to Ajanta cave
  • Importance: Vaidharbhariti style in Sanskrit; Brahmin ruler but supported other religions; Ajanta Cave; portable bronze sculpture; 1st time Saka Samvat found on Hisse-Borala Inscription (Maharashtra) of Devasena

PUSHYABHUTI/VARDHANA DYNASTY OF STHANESHWAR (500–647 CE) ​

  • Prabhakarvardhana (580–605 CE): 1st notable king; fought against Gurjaras and Huns; 3 children: Rajyavardhana, Harshavardha, and daughter Rajyashri
  • Rajyashri married to Grahavarman (Maukhari king of Kannauj)
  • Rajyavardhana (605–606 CE): killed by Sasanka treacherously
  • Harshavardhana: younger son; ascended throne at age 16 in 606 AD

Harshavardhana (606–647 AD) ​

  • Pulkeshin II defeated Harsha; assumed title "Parameswara" (mentioned in Aihole inscription by Ravi Kirti); gave Sakalottarapathanatha title to Harsha
  • Alliance with Bhaskarvardhana of Kamarupa (Assam)
  • No purdah system among high class
  • Harsha wrote: Ratnavali, Priyadarshika, Nagananda
  • Banabhatta wrote: Harshcharita and Kadambari
  • Hiuen Tsang wrote: Si-Yu-Ki (Buddhist Records of the Western World)
  • Famous scholars in court: Mayura, Divakara, Jeyasena
  • Nalanda University: Shilabhadra was guru of Hieun Tsang
  • Division of Empire: same as Gupta Rulers (Bhuktis, Vishya, Gram)
  • Revenue: Bhaga 1/6th of product paid in kind; also Hirnya, Bali, Sales-Tax, toll tax, presents from feudatories
  • Army: four divisions (chaturanga); Commander: Baladhikrata/Maha-Baladhikrata
  • Justice: severe; usual punishments: imprisonment for life, loss of limbs, ordeals by fire and water
  • Religion: accepted Buddhism but Hinduism, Jainism also popular
  • Religious assembly at Prayaga once every 5 years
  • Convened quinquennial assemblies known as Mahamoksha Parishad at Prayag

EARLY MEDIEVAL DYNASTIES — SOUTH INDIA ​

Chalukyas (6th–12th Century AD) ​

  • Early Western Chalukyas (6th–8th Century AD): capital: Vatapi (modern Badami); founder: Pulakesin-I (543–566 AD); Pulakesin II (610–642 AD) — real founder and greatest ruler; Aihole inscription (by Ravi Kirti); defeated Harsha; Mahendravarma-I-Pallava (Battle of Pullulur); alliances with Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas; defeated by Narsimavarman-I (son of Mahendravarman I) in Battle of Vatapi; Kirtivarman II (746–753 AD): last Chalukya king of Badami
  • Later Western Chalukyas (10th–12th century): ended Rashtrakuta rule; Vikramaditya-VI; Someswara IV (last ruler); Manigramam: influential guild of merchants
  • Eastern Chalukyas (7th–12th century): location: Vengi; founder: Vishnu Vardhana (brother of Pulakesin-II); one ruler Kulothunga Chola (1071–1122 AD) crowned as Chola ruler
  • Contribution: Vesara Style (combination of Nagara and Dravidian); Aihole temples; Badami temples; Pattadakkal; Badami Cave Mural Paintings; women appointed to high designations (Vijaya Bhattarika)

Pallavas (275–897 AD) ​

  • Simhavarman/Simhavishnu (575–600 AD): Founder; Buddhist; included Sri Lanka in kingdom
  • Mahendravarman (600–630 AD): Inscription of Mandagapattu; wrote play Mattaavilasa Prahasana; introduced rock-cut temple architecture (Mandapa); was Jain then converted to Saivism; defeated by Pulakesin II in Battle of Pullur
  • Narasimhavarman I / Mahamalla (630–668 AD): killed Pulakesin II in Battle of Vatapi; title: Vatapikonda; sent naval expedition to Sri Lanka; founded Mamallapuram/Mahabalipuram; Hiuen Tsang: kingdom was good
  • Capital: Kanchi; Ghatika (educational institution attached to temples) was well-known
  • Kanchi was home of Dharmapala (later became President of Nalanda University)
  • Architecture: Arjuna/Bhagiratha Penance, Ratha Temple, Kailashnath temple of Kanchipuram, Shore Temple of Mahabalipuram
  • Decline: attacked by Pandyas, Western Gangas, Rashtrakutas; last Pallava king: Aparajitavarman (903 CE); Aditya I (Chola) defeated Aparajitavarman

Imperial Cholas (850–1200 CE) ​

  • Founder: Vijayalaya Chola; captured Tanjore; built temple for Durga
  • Aditya (871–907 CE): ended Pallava Rule
  • Parantaka I (907–955 CE): defeated Pandyas + Ceylon Ruler; Uthiramerur inscriptions: village administration under Cholas
  • Rajaraja I / Arumolivarman (985–1014 CE): naval battle of Kandalur Salai; defeated Pandya ruler; naval expedition against Maldive; annexation of northern Sri Lanka; constructed Rajarajeshwara/Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore (1010 CE); title: Ulagalanda Perumal; allowed Sailendra king to build Buddhist Vihara (Chudamani Vihara) in Nagipattanam
  • Rajendra I (1014–1044 CE): captured whole Sri Lanka; converted Bay of Bengal into Chola Lake; founded GangaikondaCholapuram; expedition to North India; defeated Mahipala I (Pala Empire) of Bengal; Brihideshwara Temple at Gangakondacholapuram; naval expedition captured South Asian countries
  • Rajadhiraja (1044–1052 CE): destroyed Chalukyan cities; killed in Battle of Koppam; title: Yanai-mel-thunjina Devar (died on back of elephant)
  • Kulottunga I (1070–1122 CE): sent 72 merchants to China; united Vengi kingdom with Chola Empire; classic writer Kamban (Tamil Ramayana) at his court
  • Administration: Rashtriyam/Rajyam → Mandalams → Valanadus/Kottams → Nadus (under Nattar); Ur (general assembly of non-Brahmadeya villages); Sabha (assembly in agraharas); guilds/shrenis present
  • Architecture: Living Chola temples; Sculpture: Four-handed Bronze Sculpture of Nataraja by Chola artists (Sthapati)
  • Literature: Ramayana (Kamban), Tirumurais by Nambi (Shaiva), Divya Prabandham by Nathmuni (Alvar-Vaishnav); Famous Trinity of Kannada poetry: Pampa, Ponna, Ranna

Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra (11th–14th Century AD) ​

  • Founder: Nripakama II/Sala; capital: Halebid (Dwarsamudrum); location: AP, Karnataka
  • Vishnuvardhana (1108–1152 AD): 1st distinguished ruler; shifted capital to Dwarasamudra; captured Gangavadi from Kulothunga Chola
  • Vira Ballala III (1291–1342 AD): last great ruler; defeated by Malik Kafur; fell victim to Sultans of Madurai in 1342 AD
  • Contributions: encouraged Kannada literature; Hoysala Architecture (Sringeri, Halebid)

Kakatiya of Warangal (12th–14th Century AD) ​

  • Founder: Betaraja I (1000–1052); feudatory of Kalyani Chalukya
  • Prola-II (1110–1158 AD): 1st independent ruler; capital in Hanumakonda
  • Ganapathi (1199–1261 AD): captured territories up to Kanchi
  • Rudrama Devi (1261–1291 AD): Marco Polo (Italian traveller) visited during her era
  • Prataparudhra-II (1291–1326 AD): invasion of Malik Kafur in 1309 AD; Ulugh Khan captured Warangal in 1323 AD
  • Contributions: Kohinoor (unearthed in Kollur); Thousand Pillar temple at Hanumakonda; Ramappa temple (UNESCO)

Yadavas of Devagiri (Daultabad) (850–1334 AD) ​

  • Also known as Sevunas and Gavali Kings
  • Bhillama V (1175–1190 AD): defeated Someswara-IV; declared independence
  • Ramachandra Deva (1271–1309 AD): last great ruler; defeated by Ala-ud-din-Khilji
  • Sankara Deva (1309–1312 AD): killed by Malik Kafur in 1312 AD
  • Contribution: Devagiri Fort

Rashtrakuta (8th–10th Century AD) ​

  • Origin: Kannada; mother tongue: Kannada
  • Dantidurga/Dantivarman (735–756 AD): founder; 1st to perform Hiranyagarbha practice (to become Kshatriya)
  • Krishna I (756–774 AD): built Kailash Temple at Ellora
  • Amoghavarsha I (814–878 AD): greatest king; new capital Manyakheta (Malkhed, Karnataka); converted to Jainism; Suleman (Arab merchant) discussed him as one of 4 kings of world
  • Krishna III (939–967 AD): defeated Tamil kings of Chola kingdom
  • Administration: Rashtras (provinces) headed by Rashtrapatis → Vishayas (districts) governed by Vishayapatis → Bhukti headed by Bhogapatis
  • Literature: Amogavarsha: Kavirajamarga (first poetic work in Kannada language); Pampa (greatest Kannada poet): Vikramasenavijaya; Ponna: Santipurana
  • Art: Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora; Elephanta (original name Sripuri) — Trimurti of Shiva; Portuguese named it Elephanta after seeing elephant sculpture

EARLY MEDIEVAL DYNASTIES — NORTH INDIA ​

Gurjara-Pratihara (8th–11th Century) ​

  • Location: Western India and Upper Gangetic plains; Pratiharas means "door keeper"
  • Founder: Harichandra (Brahmana) in Jodhpur
  • Nagabhata I (730–760 CE): defeated Arab army during Caliphate campaigns
  • Vatsaraja (780–800 CE): made Kannauj capital; Tripartite struggle with Dharmapala (Pala) and Dhruva (Rashtrakuta)
  • Bhoja I/Mihir Bhoja (836–885 CE): capital: Kannauj (also called Mahodaya); religion: Vaishnavism; title: Adivaraha; Al-Masudi (Arab traveller) gave title "King Baura"
  • Mahendrapala (885–910 CE): extensive empire reaching west to border of Sindh, east to Bengal; title: Maharajadhiraja of Aryavarta; Rajashekhar (Sanskrit poet) in his court
  • Yashpala (c. 1024–1036 CE): last ruler
  • 11th century CE: Ghaznavids removed Pratiharas; succeeded by Chauhans (Rajputana), Paramaras (Malwa) and Solankis/Chalukyas (Gujarat)

Eastern Ganga Dynasty (11th–14th Century) ​

  • Anantavarman Chodaganga (c. 1076–1150 CE): Founder; built famous Jagannath temple of Puri
  • Narsimhadeva (c. 1238–1264 CE): built Sun Temple at Konark

Pala Dynasty (8th–12th Century) ​

  • Gopala (750 CE): Founder; religion: Buddhism; built monastery at Odantapuri
  • Dharmapala (770–810 CE): founded Vikramshila University (Bihar); founded Somapuri monastery; renovated Nalanda
  • Devapala (810–850 CE): extended empire to Kamarupa, parts of Orissa, Nepal; Balaputradeva (ruler of Java) requested him to grant 5 villages to Nalanda monastery
  • Mahapala I (977–1027 CE): revived under Mahipala I; defeated by Rajendra Chola
  • Contribution: Buddhism flourished; Buddhist universities (Nalanda, Vikramashila); Charyapada — 1st literary work of Bengal; diplomatic relations with Srivijaya, Tibet, Arab Abbasid Caliphate; Pala School of Art

Sena of Bengal (1097–1225 CE) ​

  • Religion: Hindu; origin: Karnataka
  • Vijaya Sena (c. 1095–1158 CE): Defeated Bhojavarman; 2 capitals: Vijaypura and Vikrampura
  • Ballal Sena (c. 1158–1179 CE): revived orthodox Hindu practices; established Kulinism; wrote Adbhut Sagara and Dana Sagara; capital: Nabadwip
  • Lakshmana Sena (c. 1178–1207 CE): Jayadeva (author of Geeta Govinda) in his court
  • 1203–1204 CE: Muhammad Bin Khalji attacked Nabadwip

Kashmir ​

  • Kalhana's Rajatarangini: detailed historical account
  • Karakota Dynasty (625–855 AD): Durlabhavardhana (founder); Lalitaditya Muktapida (famous ruler — mentioned in Chinese Tang Dynasty Chronicles; built Martand sun Temple)
  • Utpalas Dynasty (855–958 AD): Avanti-verman (founder)
  • Queen Didda (c. 958–1003 CE): granddaughter of Bhima Shahi; founded Siddapura and Kankanapura; Kalhana describes her as merciless
  • Lalleshwari (1320–1392) aka Lal Ded: a Shaivite mystic poetess; created style of mystic poetry called vatsun or Vakhs (speech)

Pala Dynasty (Bengal) — Additional Notes ​

  • Trade between Bengal and Middle East → entry of Islam in Bengal
  • Arab merchant Sulaiman called the Pala Empire Ruhimi or Ruhima Dharma

Eastern Ganga Dynasty — Additional Notes ​

  • Narsimhadeva built Sun Temple at Konark

Chandela of Jejakabhukti (Bundelkhand) (9th–13th Century) ​

  • Rajput rulers; Feudatories of Kanyakubja Gurjara-Pratiharas (Kannauj)
  • Nanuka (835–845 CE): Founder; ruler of Khajuravatika
  • Yashovarman (925–950 CE): 1st independent king of Jijakbhukti
  • Decline: Prithviraj Chauhan invaded in 1182–83; Delhi Sultanate invaded in 1202–03
  • Art and Culture: Hindu and Jain temples (Kandariya Mahadeva, Chaturbhuja, Parsvanath); 3 other strongholds — Jayapura-Durga (Ajaigarh), Kalanjara (Kalinjar), Mahotsava-Nagara (Mahoba)

Kalachuri (Chedi) of Tripuri (9th–11th Century, Jabalpur) ​

  • Kokkala I (845–885 CE): Founder
  • Gangeya Deva (1019–1040 CE): title: Trikalingadhipati, Vikramaditya; introduced coins (4-armed Lakshmi on lotus)
  • Vijayasimha (1177–1211 CE): last ruler

Paramaras of Malwa (9th–14th Centuries) ​

  • Vassals of Rashtrakutas
  • Bhoja (1010–1055 CE): Founded Bhojpur, Bhojeshwar Temple, Bhoj Shala (Centre for Sanskrit in Dhar); title: Parameshvara-Paramabhattaraka
  • Mahalakadeva: last king; killed by forces of Ala-ud-din Khalji in 1305 CE

Solanki (Chalukya) of Gujarat (940–1244 CE) ​

  • Capital: Anhilwara (modern Patan, Gujarat)
  • Mularaj: Founder; beginning of Gujarati language and script
  • Bhimdev I (1022–1063 AD): built Sun Temple at Modhera and Rani ki Vav (step tank built by Udaymati)
  • Jayasimha Sidharaja: captured Junagarh fort; good relation with Archarya Hemchandra (Jain Monk)
  • Kumarapala: rebuilt Somnath Temple; propagation of Jainism
  • Other contribution: Somnath Temple; Maru Gurjara Style
  • Decline: conquered by Delhi Sultanate; followed by Vaghela dynasty

Tomara of Delhi (8th–12th Century) ​

  • 736 AD: Anangpal I started Tomar dynasty and founded Lal Kot (Delhi's 1st fortress)
  • 1052 AD: Anangpal-II (Anangpal Tomar) founded Delhi and Anangpur Dam
  • Decline (12th Century): Tomars ousted by Chahamanas of Shakambhari Ajmer
  • 1180 AD: Lal Kot transformed into Qila Rai Pithora by Prithviraj Chauhan

Gahadavalas of Kannauj (1090–1194 CE) ​

  • Chandradeva (1090 CE): Founder; defeated Pratiharas and Rashtrakuta
  • Govindachandra (1114–1154 CE): Grandson; defeated Ghaznavids; patronised Hinduism and Buddhism
  • Jaichandra (1170–1194 CE): defeated in Battle of Chandawar (1194) by Ghori
  • Decline: survivors fled to Marwar desert; founded Rathore clan

Hindu Shahi Dynasty ​

  • Jayapala (964–1001 CE): defended empire from Turkish rulers of Ghazni
  • Anandapala (1001–1010 CE): fought "Battle of Chach (1008)" against Mahmud Ghazni
  • Bheempala (1022–1026 CE): last Shahi emperor
  • Decline: destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni in early 12th century

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN ANCIENT INDIA ​

Astronomy ​

  • Jyotishvedanga texts established systematic categories in astronomy
  • Aryabhatta: wrote Aryabhattiya — movement of sun and moon
  • Varahamihira: Panch Siddhantika (summarises 5 schools of astronomy); discovered trigonometric equations; moon's movement around Earth and Earth's around Sun widely accepted

Mathematics ​

  • Harappan people were well-versed in measurement and geometry
  • Sulvasutras are thought to be source of Indian mathematics (same as Pythagorean theorem)
  • Apastamba (2nd CBC): idea about acute, obtuse and right angles
  • Zero was discovered in India and flourished to Arab and other areas
  • Brahmagupta (598–668 CE): wrote Brahmasputa Siddhanta (628 AD); 1st to mention zero as a number; described cyclic quadrilateral; offered solution to general linear equation
  • Aryabhatta: discovered algebra and area of a triangle
  • Baudhayana (800–740 BC): discovered Pythagoras theorem before Pythagoras (570–490 BC)
  • Bhaskaracharya (12th century AD): wrote Siddhanta-Siromani — 4 parts: Lilavati (arithmetic), Bijagaita (algebra), Grahaganita (planetary mathematics), Goladhyaya

Medicine ​

  • Atharva Veda: magical charms to remove diseases
  • Charaka Samhita by Charak: Father of Indian Medicine; 1st physician to introduce concepts of digestion, metabolism and immunity
  • Sushrutasamhita by Sushruta (6th CBC): reference to 121 surgical instruments; discusses bone setting, cataract removal, plastic surgery (repair of noses, ears and lips); mentions 760 different plants
  • Jivaka (Bimbisara and Ajatsatru's time): Atreya taught him Ayurvedic medicine; Lord Buddha's personal physician
  • Nagarjuna: alchemist; worked with mercury; promoted chemical treatments; referred to blood as rakta dhatu; bhasmas — specially formulated compounds with medicinal properties

Other ​

  • Metallurgy: IVC artefacts, Iron pillar, fresco paintings
  • Engineering, Technology and Architecture: IVC, rock-cut architecture
  • Indian iron Wootz (ootz) was the best and always in demand to make swords worldwide

SCHOOLS OF HINDU LAW ​

  • Hindu law emanated from Smritis: Manusmriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti, Smritis of Vishnu, Narad, Parashar, Apastamba, Vashisht, Gautam, etc.
  • Manusmriti: written early; 3000 shlokas; jumbled; Commentary: Dayabhaga by Jimutvahan; a bit orthodox; a bit orthodox in approach
  • Yajnavalkya Smriti: later; 1000 shlokas; more organised; Commentary: Mitakshara by Vijnaneshwar; more liberal particularly towards women
  • Mitakshara prevailed over whole of India except Bengal and Assam
  • Dayabhaga prevailed in Bengal and Assam

Dayabhaga vs Mitakshara — Key Differences ​

  • Dayabhaga: son entitled to ancestral property only on death of father; father is absolute owner in lifetime; son becomes coparcener by death of father; coparcenary by both male or female; one can transfer his share; widow gets property in default of close heir but cannot alienate; order of heirs decided by competence to offer Pinda and Sraddho
  • Mitakshara: right of son by birth in ancestral property; son becomes coparcener right after birth (right applicable to grandfather and grand-grandfather's property); female could not be coparcener; cannot transfer share to third party; joint-property can be partitioned; in default of close heir, brother and immediate survivors inherit, wife does not inherit; order of heirs decided by mereness of blood

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES ​

  • Avadana/Apadana: Buddha's explanation of person's worthy deeds in previous life
  • Araghatta: water wheel used in land irrigation
  • Agrahara/Brahmadeya: land grants to Brahmana or educational settlements
  • Bandagan-i-Khas: Royal Slaves
  • Bhattavriutti: area donated to Brahmana for educational reasons
  • Bhilsa: ancient name of Vidisha (MP)
  • Dhanyakataka: ancient name of Amaravati
  • Dharma and Rita: Dharma (duty) signifies behaviour in accord with Rita (natural order)
  • Charanachitras: story-telling scroll paintings
  • Eripatti: tank lands — land donated by individual; revenue set apart for maintenance of village tank
  • Ghatika: colleges generally attached to temples; smaller than Agrahara
  • Hundi: a bill of exchange
  • Gomastha: paid servant to supervise weavers, collect supplies and examine quality of clothes
  • Kharaj: land revenue
  • Khuntkatti: a joint holding of land by tribal lineage (Munda Tribe)
  • Kutagarashala: a place where travelling medicants halted and debated
  • Maitreya: future Buddha yet to incarnate; holds water phial
  • Mahattara: village headman
  • Manigramam and Nanadeshi: guilds of south India
  • Nirvana: extinction of flame of desire as per Buddhism
  • Nuncai: wet fields; Puncai: dry fields
  • Parivrajaka: homeless wanderer
  • Paramitas: perfection whose attainments led to the Bodhisattva path
  • Sant Bhasha: language of Nirvana mystics
  • Shramana: one who strives for enlightenment (Buddhism, Jainism)
  • Syadvada/Anekantavada: Jain's epistemology and metaphysics
  • Theri: elder nuns or respected women in Buddhism
  • Tamiyurs: large village land distinct revenue unit of Cholas
  • Eripatti: tank lands in Chola region
  • Vellan vagai: land of Non-Brahmana peasants
  • Shalabhoga: land for maintenance of school
  • Pallichchandanam: land donated to Jain institutions
  • Upasaka: lay follower of Buddhism
  • Vanik: traders
  • Virukallu and Natukkul: hero stone — memorial commemorating honorable death of a hero in battle
  • Vattakirutal: a king defeated in battle committing ritual suicide by starving himself to death
  • Vishti: forced labour (type of revenue by state prevalent in ancient times)
  • Uttaramerur inscription: Parantaka Chola's inscription dedicated to local self-governance
  • Sohgaura inscription: oldest copper inscription of Mauryas (Pre-Ashokan) — deals with famine relief efforts
  • Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam: taken from Maha Upanishada
  • Aham Brahmasmi: taken from Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
  • Tatvamasi: taken from Chhandogya Upanishad
  • Ma Gridhah Kasyasvid Dhanam (Motto of Lokpal): taken from Isavasya Upanishad
  • Kosh Mulo Dand ("Treasury is backbone of Administration"): taken from Kautilya Arthashastra
  • Motto of Indian Navy "Sham No Varunah": taken from Taittiriya Upanishad (Yajurveda)/Rigveda
  • Yato Dharma Stato Jayaha (Supreme Court motto): taken from Mahabharata

DIVISION OF LAND IN SANGAM/TOLKAPPIYAM (TINAIS) ​

  • Kurinji: hilly regions — hunting and gathering
  • Mullai: forest — pastoral or shifting agriculture
  • Palai: dry land
  • Marudam: wet land — agriculture
  • Neithal: sea coast — fishing, pearls, etc.

Reference: India's Ancient Past by RS Sharma, Ancient History by RC Mazumdar, Ancient History (IGNOU), Ancient History — Romila Thapar, The Wonder That Was India by A.L. Basham, NCERTs, Coins by Parmeshwari Lal Gupta, Archaeological Survey of India, Previous Year Questions

Notes compiled by Rahul Sengar Sir, Faculty — NEXT IAS (2024-25)

Ancient History: Revision Index ​

1. Core Preliminary Topics ​

2. Reference & Chronology ​

3. High-Yield Summary ​

  • Focus on terminologies, inscriptions, and art-culture interlinks as per recent UPSC trends (2020-2024).

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