History Current Affairs (2023-2025) - Prelims

Source: Rahul Sengar Sir (Next IAS) - Ancient and Art & Culture Prelims 2025

Ancient Universities

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Location Godala (Bihar), 8-12 km from Bhagalpur Established by King Dharmapala of Pala Dynasty (late 8th - early 9th century AD) Purpose Response to perceived decline in educational standards at Nalanda University Specialization Leading hub for Tantric Buddhism and Vajrayana Buddhism Students Over 1,000 students and 100 teachers from across India and beyond International reputation Major center of learning Destruction Bakhtiyar Khalji around 1203 AD

Important Temples

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Also called Dakshina Meru (Meru of the South) Location Banks of Kaveri River, Thanjavur Builder Emperor Rajaraja Chola I (985 CE - 1015 CE) Distinction First all-granite temple in the world Style Fully realised Dravidian architecture Principal deity Shiva (Dakshinamurthi form - Teaching pose) UNESCO Status Part of "Great Living Chola Temples" (with Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Airavatesvara temples) Kumbhabhishekam Only 5 ceremonies held so far Later additions Shrines added by Pandyas, Vijayanagara rulers, and Marathas Rajaraja Chola I (Arulmozhi Varman): Title: Ulakalanda Perume (the great one who measured the earth like Trivikrama) Titles: Jayangonda, Pandya-kulasani, Singalantaka, Colamartanda, Telingakulakala Military expeditions: Sri Lanka (Rajaraja I), SriVijaya (Rajendra I) Encouraged Sri Mara Vijayottungavarman (Sailendra ruler of Sri Vijaya) to build Buddhist Vihara at Nagapattinam Innovation: Started prefacing stone records with official prasasti Temples 5 temples (11th-12th CE) Style Hemadpanthi style of architecture Location Near Satara; Sangam Mahuli at meeting of Krishna and Yenna rivers Notable structures Samadhis of Maratha queens Rani Tarabai Bhosle and Rani Yesho Bai Bhosle NMA To submit report on comprehensive development Location Garhwal Himalayas, on Mandakini River (between Rudraprayag and Sonprayag) Belief Temple built by Pandavas Modern structure Built by Adi Shankaracharya in 8th century Recent renovation Sanctum sanctorum covered with 230 kg silver (2017), gold makeover completed Winter closure Temple closed in winter; deity brought to village Ukhimath Char Dham One of four: Badrinath, Dwarka, Puri, Kedarnath 4 Mathas by Shankaracharya: Badrinath (North) Dwarka (West) Puri (East) Sringeri (South) Ancient name Avantika Deity form Anand Tandav Swaroop (dance form of Lord Shiva) Unique feature Only jyotirlinga facing South (direction of death) to prevent untimely death Kalidasa mention Described in Meghadutam (4th century) with stone foundation and wooden pillar ceiling Geography Zero meridian of longitude and Tropic of Cancer intersect at Ujjain Vedh Shala / Jantar Mantar Built by Maharaja Jai Singh II (18th century); 13 astronomical instruments Destruction Shams-ud-din Iltutmish in 13th century Present structure Built by Maratha general Ranoji Shinde in 1734 Style Bhumija, Chalukya, and Maratha styles Marble walkways Restored by Scindias (19th century) 12 Jyotirlingas: Mahakaleshwar (MP) - Only South-facing Somnath (Gujarat) Nageshwar (Gujarat) Mallikarjuna (Andhra Pradesh) Omkareshwar (MP) Kedarnath (Uttarakhand) Bhimashankar (Maharashtra) Triyambakeshwar (Maharashtra) Grishneshwar (Maharashtra) Viswanath (Varanasi) Baidyanath (Jharkhand) Rameshwar (Tamil Nadu) Location Village of Sharda in valley of Mount Harmukh, along Neelam River Period 6th-12th centuries CE - foremost centre of higher learning Notable scholars Kalhana, Adi Shankara, Vairotsana Sanskrit grammar Panini and Hemachandra completed and stored writings here Religious significance Most revered place for Kashmiri Pandits Tripartite embodiment Sharada (goddess of learning), Saraswati (goddess of knowledge), Vagdevi (goddess of speech) Raja Lalitaditya Believed to have built Sharada Peeth to contain Buddhist influence Status One of 18 Maha Shakti Peethas commemorating fallen body parts of Sati Built by Bhima-I of Solanki/Chalukya Dynasty of Gujarat (1026-27) Style Solanki School / Maru-Gurjara style Location Banks of Pushpavati River Status No worship offered now; ASI protected monument Three components: Gudhamandapa Shrine hall Sabhamandapa Assembly hall Kunda Reservoir

UNESCO World Heritage Sites

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Period 13th-19th century Comparison Resemble Egyptian pyramids and Chinese royal tombs Location Royal Moidams in Charaideo district; others in Jorhat, Dibrugarh, eastern Assam Structural Features: Design: Earthen mounds with vaulted chambers Covered with grassy dome topped with octagonal pavilion (Chow Chali) Surrounded by low octagonal wall with single entrance Burial System: Contained kings, grave goods, animals, and servants for afterlife Sacred Elements: Special trees, water bodies Tai-Ahom rituals (Me-Dam-Me-Phi) still practiced

Forts

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Built 1565 under Emperor Akbar Material Red sandstone Location On Yamuna River, 5 km from Taj Mahal Shape Crescent-shaped with straight wall facing Yamuna Residence Main residence of Mughal emperors till 1638 (capital shifted to Delhi) Previous name Badalgarh (renovated by Akbar); Shahjahan made modifications Four gates Khizri Gate, Amar Singh Gate, Delhi Gate, Ghazni Gate UNESCO Status World Heritage Site (1983) Built by Rana Kumbha (15th century AD) Location Western Aravalli Hills Status Second most important citadel after Chittorgarh in Mewar Wall Second-longest wall in world after Great Wall of China UNESCO Status Part of Hill Forts of Rajasthan World Heritage Site Contains Seven fortified gateways, several Jain temples Lakhola Tank Most famous tank, built by Rana Lakha Birthplace Maharana Pratap Breached only once By combined armies of Mughals and Amber, due to water scarcity Defeated by Babur Sultan Khalil bin Deham Al Qagran at Battle of Khanwa

Buddhist Sites

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Identify the key current affairs updates regarding Buddhist Sites.	Context Mahastupa collapsed last year Features Remnants of stupas, chaitya grihas, viharas atop Thotlakonda Hill Type Hinayana Buddhist mahastupa

Historical Controversies

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5th century BC Sambhal was home to Panchal rulers, later part of Ashoka's empire Delhi Sultanate Important place under Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Tughlaq, and Lodis After 1st Battle of Panipat (1526) Under Mughals Sambhal Mosque: Built by Hindu Beg in 1526 (official under Babur) One of only 3 mosques from Babur's reign surviving: Jama Masjid, Sambhal Kabuli Bagh mosque, Panipat (1527-28) Babri Masjid, Ayodhya (1529) Claims: Some claim it was Hari Mandir Based on A.C.L. Carlyle (First Assistant of ASI) - "Tours in the Central Doab and Gorakhpur" (not agreed by Alexander Cunningham) Features more like Pathan architecture than Mughal Abul Fazl's Ain-e-Akbari Sambhal as place where last avatar of Vishnu would be born

Sculptures & Iconography

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Started by Chalukyas; reached climax in Cholas Cosmic dance Creation and destruction Elements: Jata Dhaara Matted hair (destroys heavenly bodies) Damaru 2 sides = Akasa & Sabda = Sound = Creation Abhaya Mudra Fearlessness Gaja Hasta Mudra Freedom from fear Bhujanga Trasa Mudra Liberation (leg lifted as if snake seen) Tiruvashi/Prabhavali Arch of Flames = Motion of Earth / Endless Cycle of Births & Deaths Ganga Source of Life Trayambaka 3 Eyed = Sun, Moon, Fire Pralayagni Destroys the world Ardha Chandra Mudra Half moon Trasu (Snake) Poison; Victory over wickedness Apasmara Purusa Illusion & Ignorance (demon under foot) Dedicated to Shankaracharya Philosophy Advaita (Non-dualism) God = Brahman World = Maya (illusion) Formless (Neti-Neti) Bhakti up to certain level, but ultimate thing is KNOWLEDGE to get Salvation Dasnam Sampradaya 10 monastic orders established by Shankaracharya 4 Pithas Badrinath, Dwarka, Puri, Sringeri Form: Description Panchanana Shiva: Five faces: Isana, Tatpurusha, Aghora, Vamadeva, Sadyojata Anugrahamurthi: Most peaceful aspect; surrounded by devotees and family Ugramurthi: Most ferocious state to destroy evil forces Thandavamurthi (Nataraja): Performs tandava; dynamic rhythmic dance to reduce sufferings Bhikshathana Murthi: Ascetic form; wandering with skull begging bowl Hridaya Murthi: State of friendliness with Lord Vishnu Dakshinamurthi: Teacher of mystic secrets, art forms, alchemy, yantras, tantras Lingodbhavamurthi: Infinite form with no beginning/end; Supreme Self as Linga Ardhanariswara: Half man + Half woman = Gender equality Kalyan Sundara Murthi: Marriage of Shiva 10th Century items: Bas relief panel of Revanta in sandstone Three headed Brahma Chariot Driving Surya Vishnu and his Consorts Shiva as Dakshinamurti (Teaching phase) Dancing Ganesha Bodhisattva Manjushri Tara Jaina Choubisi Amorphous couple in Samabhanga Chowri Bearer Female playing drum Guru Hargobind Singh

::: details **Paintings**

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> Visual references available for: Kangra, Pichwai, Madhubani, Kaavi, Rogan, and Mandala paintings in ./images/ folder Early patronage Raja Govardhan Singh (1774) Evolution First in Guler, then Kangra Zenith Under Raja Sansar Chand Characteristics Marked with sensuality and intelligence Themes Gita Govinda, Bhagavata Purana, Satsai of Biharilal, Nal Damyanti, Love scenes of Krishna Famous group 'Twelvemonths' / Barah Maas paintings Parent school To Kullu, Chamba, and Mandi ateliers Subset of Mewar School of painting (17th-18th century) Location Nathdwara (Rajsamand) Subject Figure of Shrinathji as manifestation of Krishna as 7-year-old child (Balak) Famous episode Krishna holding Govardhan Hill on last finger Motifs Iconic cow and lotus motifs (revival in fashion/interior design) Famous artist Sahidin (earliest); later Pichwai paintings most popular Time period 10,000-4,000 BC Themes Forest, people, and animals Occasion Sohrai (harvest festival) coinciding with Diwali/Kali Puja Regions: Keonjhar and Mayurbhanj (Odisha) East Singhbhum and Seraikela-Kharsawan (Jharkhand) Purulia (West Bengal) Communities: Santhals, Bhumij Material: Morrum (termite resistant, doesn't fade with rain) State Tamil Nadu Status GI Tags granted Region Konkan region Form Murals (dying art form) Pigment Kaav (Indian red pigment from laterite soil) - only color used Technique Painted on wet plaster (similar to frescoes) Themes Religious motifs: Krishna, Rama, Durga, Lakshmi, Shiva Symbols Fish = good luck and fertility Characteristics: No shading (two-dimensional) No gaps (filled with flowers, trees, animals) Double line border Bold use of colours Ornate floral patterns Exaggerated facial features Traditional base Cow dung and mud walls; rice paste and vegetable colours Modern Handmade paper, clothes, canvas (still natural colours) Status GI Tag granted Location Kutch district Name origin Persian word meaning "oil varnishing" Technique Paint made from boiled oil and vegetable dyes laid on fabric Methods Metal block (printing) or stylus (painting) Status Nearly died out in late 20th century; practiced by only one family PM Modi Gifted hand-carved box with Rogan painting to Japan's Fumio Kishida Meaning "Circle" or "centre" in Sanskrit Pattern Geometric configuration with interconnected circular/square shapes Origin Rooted in Hinduism and Buddhism Time period First appeared in Vedas (c. 1500-500 BC) Spread Buddhist missionaries along Silk Road Forms: Hindu Usually square with circle at centre Buddhist Circular painting to discover true self Elements: 8 spokes (Dharmachakra) Eight-fold path of Buddhism; liberation from birth-death cycle Lotus flower Balance Sun Universe Triangles facing up Action and energy Triangles facing down Creativity and knowledge Modern: Central in Thangka paintings; adopted by SH Raza and neo-tantric artists

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Classical Dances

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> Visual references available for: Kathak, Sattriya, Bharatanatyam, and Cham Dance in ./images/ folder Origin Kathakars (story-tellers) narrating episodes from epics, myths, legends Evolution Early oral tradition — Mime and gestures added — Vaishnavism influence (15th century) Theme Krishna and his leela; Raslila extension of mime Popularity Both Hindu and Muslim courts Elements: Equal distribution of body weight along horizontal/vertical axis Full foot contact; no sharp bends of upper/lower body Only classical dance with Muslim culture links Unique Hindu-Muslim synthesis Only classical dance wedded to Hindustani music (North Indian) Features: Jugalbandi Competitive play between dancer and tabla player World famous: Spectacular footwork, spins, Nazakat, Padhant (chanting bols) Kramalaya Concluding piece with intricate fast footwork Gat Bhaav Dance without music to outline mythological episodes Ghunghrus Heavy bells producing sounds like running train, rain, horse riding (Ghode ki chaal) Introduced by Vaishnava saint Mahapurusha Sankaradeva (15th century) Preserved by Sattras (Vaishnava monasteries) Sattras Dance community halls (namghar) of monastery temples Themes: Radha-Krishna and other myths; Dramas by Sankardev Two Styles: Paurashik Bhangi Masculine (energetic with jumps) Stri Bhangi Feminine (Lasya/delicate) Costumes: Male: Dhoti, chadar, paguri (turban) Female: Ghuri, chadar, Kanchi (materials from Assam) Masks For special characters (demons) Music: Borgeet of Sankardev and Madhavdev Instruments: Khol (two-faced asymmetrical drum), Manjira, Bhortal, Flute, Violin, Harmonium Name meaning Bha (bhaav/expression) + Ra (raag/melody) + Ta (taal/rhythm) Mention Silappatikaram (ancient Tamil epic) Major center Brihadeeshwara Temple since 1000 CE Gopurams of Chidambaram (Nataraja) Display poses, chaaris, karanas carved in stone Also known as "Poetry in motion" / Ekcharya Lasyam (one dancer, many roles) Devadasis Kept dance alive; hence called DASSIATTAM Guides Abhinaya Darpan and Sangeet Ratnakar for technique and grammar Features: Heavy emphasis on abhinaya (mime) Dancer expresses sahitya through movement Thanjavur Quartet (Tanjor Natyam) Chiniah, Ponniah, Vadivelu, Shivanandam Called the 'fire dance' Principal mudra: Kataka Mukha Hasta Three fingers joined symbolizing 'Om' Three Elements: Nritta Pure dance Nritya Expressive dance Natya Dramatic dance Nattuvanar — Person who conducts dance recitation Instruments: Mridangam, Violin/Veena, Flute, Cymbals Yamini Krishnamurti — Classical dancer trained in Bharatnatyam and Kuchipudi; wrote "Passion for Dance" Origin Yogachara School of Kashmir (4th century) by Asanga and Vasubandhu Development Into sophisticated Vajrayana Buddhism Started 8th century by Padmasambhava (who introduced Tantric Buddhism to Tibet) Nature Deepest form of meditation of Lamas Type Elaborate masked and costumed dance

Additional Temples

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Built by Aditya Karikalan II (father of Rajaraja Cholan) Later additions Dalavai Ariyanadha Mudaliar (viceroy of Krishnadevaraya) built Rajagopuram, compound wall, 16-pillar Mandap (1501) Style Dravidian architecture; 5-tier Rajagopuram Legend Named after Nandi Deva (Singhi) who played Mridangam during Shiva's dance at Tiruvalangadu Deity Lord Sri Venkateswara (incarnation of Vishnu) Location Venkata Hill, one of Saptagiri (7 hills) of Tirumala Puranic reference Garuda Purana, Brahma Purana Style Dravidian architecture (from ~300 AD) GI Tag Tirupati Laddu Gopuram 50 ft gateway at entrance Parikrama Two circumambulation paths Main shrine Gold-plated tower called Ananda Nilayam Location Banks of Phalgu River Built by Queen Ahilya Bai Holkar of Indore Style Nagara-style (Northern Indian architecture) Features: Octagonal sanctum Houses Lord Vishnu's footprint Black basalt stone Intricately carved designs Multiple rows of pillars Significance Pind Daan rituals for deceased ancestors Built by Kakatiya King Rudra Deva (12th century) Type Star-shaped Trikutalayam (triple shrine) Dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva, and Surya Style Dravidian architecture with 3 shrines (Veerabhadra, Shiva, Vishnu) Legends Rama meeting Jatayu; Agasthya establishing idol of Papanaseswara Built by Virupanna and Veeranna (favored by Achyuta Devaraya, Vijayanagara) - 16th century Famous attractions: Biggest mural painting of Veerabhadra Swamy in Asia Hanging pillar (doesn't touch ground) Sculpture of Padmini 7-headed Nagalingam World's largest monolithic Nandi Built by Lakkana Dandesha (nayaka under King Deva Raya II) Design Panchayat hall with 12 pillars Dedicated to Lord Shiva Style Vijayanagara-Dravidian with Indo-Islamic and European influence Features Kalyana Mandapa (Marriage Hall) UNESCO Status Hampi is World Heritage Site Dedicated to Vishnu, Devi Subhadra, Lord Balabhadra Built by Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva (Ganga dynasty) - 12th century Also called Yamanika Tirtha (neutralizes Yama's influence) Features 20-foot high chakra visible from anywhere in Puri Status One of Char Dhaams, UNESCO World Heritage Site Architecture (Kalinga Style): Pancharatha design with four components: Vimana (Garbhagriha) Rekha deula with curved shikhar Jagamohana Pidha deula with diminishing platforms Natamandapa Audience & dancing hall Bhogamandapa Offerings hall Four Gates: Singhdwara (Lions), Ashwadwara (Horses), Vyaghra Dwara (Tigers), Hastidwara (Elephants) 24 forms of Vishnu carved on walls Built by Keshri rulers (Jajati and Lalatendu Keshri) Deity Hari-hara (Vishnu + Shiva) Significance Blend of Vaishnavism and Shaivism Status Part of Golden Triangle of Odisha Built by Narsimhadeva-I (Eastern Ganga dynasty) - 1250 AD (13th century) Location Ancient river Chandrabhaga Design Ratha-shaped (chariot) Features Erotic sculptures, Odissi dance carvings R.N. Tagore quote "Language of stone surpasses the language of man" Status Part of Golden Triangle of Odisha Built by Rachela Rudra (general of Kakatiya King Ganapati Deva) - 1213 AD Unique Only temple in India named after its sculptor (Ramappa) Design Star-shaped platform Kakatiya titles Raya Gajakesari, Daya Gaja Kesari Technology Floating bricks (stay afloat in water) Features Sarigama pillars (musical notes) Built by Lalitaditya Muktapida of Karkota dynasty (8th century) Dynasty founder Durlabhvardhana Style Kashmiri architecture with Greek, Roman, Gandharan, Chinese, Egyptian influences Material Wood and Stone Destroyed by Sultan Sikandar Shah Miri in 1401

Cave Sites

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Location Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai Name origin 'Kanhagiri' in Prakrit (Nasik inscription of Vasisthiputra Pulumavi) Foreign accounts Mentioned by Fa-Hein Religion Hinayana, Mahayana, Vajrayana Buddhism Patronage Satavahana, Traikutakas, Vakatakas, Silaharas Features Podhis (water cisterns for conservation) Distinction 2nd largest Chaitya griha Patronage Rashtrakuta, Chalukya, Kalchuris, Yadava Period 5th-11th century CE Caves: Buddhist (1-12) Vajrayana Buddhism Hindu (13-29) Jain (30-34) Unique Triple storey caves (Ajanta has only double storey) Carved on Sloping side of hill Notable caves: Vishwakarma Cave Buddha in Vyakhyana Mudra with Bodhi tree Ravan ki Khai, Dashavatar Temple (by Dantidurga) Kailashnath Temple Built by Rashtrakuta Krishna I; Ravana shaking Mount Kailash Dhumal Lena, Rameshwar Temple Indra Sabha, Jagannath Sabha Jain caves Location Trashmi Hills Religion Buddhism + Jainism (mainly) River Godavari (tributary of Tapti) Legend Pandavas visited during exile Features Chaitya (worship place) + Vihara (residential halls) 3rd Cave Financed by Gautami Balashri (mother of Gautamiputra Satakarni) Named after Narasimhavarman I (Mamallan) - Pallava King (630-668 AD) UNESCO Status World Heritage Site (1984) - "Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram" Monuments: Pancha Rathas (7th century) Dharmaraja, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula-Sahadeva, Draupadi Ratha No connection with actual Pandavas Dharmaraja Ratha is largest Adivaraha Cave Sculptures of Simhavishnu and Mahendra Varman Rock-cut caves Varaha, Krishna, Panchapandava, Mahishasuramardini Mandapa Open Air Relief Descent of the Ganges / Arjuna's Penance / Bhagiratha's Penance Shore Temple Dedicated to Shiva with Anantashayana Vishnu Krishna's Butter Ball Famous balancing rock

Stupas

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Significance Site of Buddha's Enlightenment River Niranjana River Built by Emperor Ashoka; present temple from 5th/6th century UNESCO Status World Heritage Site (2002) Distinction One of India's earliest brick structures; earliest Buddhist temple entirely in brick Features: Sculpted stone balustrades Vajrasana (diamond throne) - Ashoka's stone slab marking Buddha's exact position River Betwa Commissioned by Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE) Later expansion Shunga and Satavahana rulers Material Bricks and Stone Features: 4 Toranas with sculptures on both sides Vessantara Jataka story Symbolic representation of Buddha Gajalakshmi, Shalabhanjika Mention of Satkarni-I Ivory merchant donation Discovered by Sir Henry Taylor (1818) Inscriptions Ashokan Lion Capital; Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts UNESCO Status World Heritage Site (1989) Built by Ashoka (3rd century BCE); major work by Satavahanas Material White marble Unique feature Ayaka pillars (5 pillars at cardinal points) Rediscovered by Colin McKenzie (1797) Size Bigger than Sanchi Buddhism Hinayana + Mahayana Features 5 major life events of Buddha depicted Distinction Tallest and largest Buddhist stupa in the world Construction 3rd century BCE (Ashoka) Current structure Gupta Dynasty, Raja Chakravarti (4th century) Legend Inaugurated during Buddha's time; Licchavis of Vaishali built it to house Buddha's alms bowl Foreign accounts Faxian (Fahien) and Xuanzang Discovery Gold coins with seal of Kanishka (Kushan dynasty)

Inscriptions

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Period Parantaka Chola (907-953 AD) Subject Local Self-governance Location Vaikunta Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram (built by Nandivarman-II, Pallava ruler, 8th century) Sabha (Assembly): Exclusively of Brahmans with specialized committees 30 wards selecting one representative each for village assembly Qualifications: Ownership of certain land (exception for those knowing one Veda and four Bhashyas) Own house Age 35-70 Knowledge of mantras and Brahmanas Well-versed in business and virtuous Disqualifications: Not submitting accounts while in committee First four of five great sins (killing brahman, drinking, theft, adultery) Association with outcastes Eating forbidden dishes Selection method: Draw of lots by priests from palm leaf tickets Committees: Garden committee, Tank committee, Annual committee (executive) Supervision of justice, Gold committee, Five-fold committee Tenure: 360 days

Religious Movements

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Patronage King Bijjala of Kalachuri dynasty Founded Lingayata sect Anubhav Mandapa 1st parliament of India discussing Kayaka (work as per skill), Dasoha (equal pay), Kaykave Kailasa (work is worship) Principles Ariva (True knowledge), Achara (Right conduct), Anubhava (Divine experience) Lingayata practices: Ishtalinga wearing, Burials (not cremation) No rebirth belief, No temple worship, No child marriage Veerashaivism: Origin from 5 great teachers: Renuka, Daruka, Ghantakarna, Dhenukarna, Vishwakarma Believed in Shaktivishistadvaita (qualified non-duality) Ashtavarna rules to be observed Santhara / Samlekhana Fast unto death (Sallekhana) Kayotsarga "Dismissing the body" - meditation posture (as in Gommateshwara at Shravanabelagola, dedicated to Lord Bahubali, son of Rishabhadeva) Basadi Jain temples in South India Kirti Stambh at Ellora Pillar with message "Jio aur jine do" (live and let live) Sites Udayagiri, Ratnagiri, Lalitgiri (URL) Buddhism Vajrayana (Diamond Vehicle) Features: Offshoot of Mahayana Tantra and Mantra Tantric Buddhism Tara (female Bodhisattva) 7th century AD origin Patronage Pala dynasty

Universities

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Founded by Kumaragupta-I (427 CE, 5th century) Earliest evidence Coin with Shakraditya (Kumaragupta I), 415-455 CE Harshavardhana support Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) studied here for 5 years under Shilabhadra I-tsing Gave description of Nalanda Destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji (12th century) Rediscovered Francis Buchanan-Hamilton (1812); confirmed by Alexander Cunningham (1861) Teacher-student ratio 1:5 Famous scholars Nagarjuna, Aryabhatta, Dharmakirti, Dinnaga, Xuanzang, Silabhadra, Atisha Source Tabaqat-i-Nasiri by Minhaj-us-Siraj (13th century)

Vijayanagara Architecture

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Influence Combined Chola, Hoysala, Pandya, Chalukya + Indo-Islamic (Bijapur) Features: Highly decorated walls with carvings and geometrical patterns Gopurams on all sides (previously only front) Yali (mythical horse-creature) on temple pillars Central Kalyan Mandap (Marriage hall) Concept of secular buildings (e.g., Lotus Mahal) Examples: Vittalswami Temple, Lotus Mahal, Virupaksha Temple, Raghunatha Temple Vijay-Vithala Temple features: Devi shrine, Maha Mantapa (Sabha Mantapa) Ranga Mantapa 56 musical pillars (SAREGAMA pillars) Kalyana Mantapa, Utsava Mantapa Famous Stone Chariot (other two at Konark and Mahabalipuram)

Forts

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Identify the key current affairs updates regarding Forts.	Earlier name Rairi (renamed by Shivaji) European name Gibraltar of the East Dynasties Bahamanis — Nizamshahis — Adilshahis 1656 Shivaji captured from More's of Javli (under Adilshahi) 1664 Seat of Shivaji's government 1674 Shivaji took title of Chhatrapati 1680 Shivaji's death

Modern Heritage

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Architect Bimal Patel Shape Triangular Themes: Lok Sabha hall Peacock Rajya Sabha hall Lotus Courtyard Banyan Tree Murals Samudra Manthan (Ocean churning) Old Parliament (1921-1927): Style: Neo-Roman Architectural, Circular Building Architects: Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker Theme: "Churning of Ideas" Derived from Tamil word "Semmai" meaning "Righteousness" History: C. Rajagopalachari suggested tradition of Chola kings' power transfer First given to Lord Mountbatten by Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam priests Then handed to Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru Sacred song "Kolaru Padhigam" by 7th century Tamil Saiva saint Thirugnanasambandar (one of 63 Nayanars) Made by 20th Guru of Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam Adheenams: Ancient mathas devoted to worship of Lord Shiva Non-Brahmin orders Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam formed in 15th century Symbolism: Nandi Justice and Strength Lakshmi Wealth and Prosperity Kodimaram Growth and Fertility Architects Chandrakant Sompura (and son Nikhil) Style Nagara Architecture Design Panchayatana style (3rd stage of Gupta Era) - 1 main shrine + 4 subsidiary shrines Features: Octagonal Garbha Griha Boundary Wall (Jagati) Shikhara - Amalaka - Kalash Materials: No use of Steel/Iron Copper plates + Gold + Granite 7 Types of Rocks + Bricks

Indus Valley Civilization Sites

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River Bhogava River (tributary of Sabarmati) Famous for: Artificial Brick Dockyard (first known in history) Double Burial Terracotta model of Ship and Horse Five Altars Evidence of Rice (also at Rangpur) River Ghaggar River Period 3000-2750 BC Famous for: Ploughed field (perhaps oldest in world) Two crops in same field Fire Altars (worship of fire) Evidence of earthquake around 2600 BC Terracotta model of Charging Bull (realistic folk art) Cylindrical seal with women and two men Structure: Early Harappan Mud-brick structure Mature Harappan Fired bricks Distinction Largest IVC site in India Evidence: Human burial (8000 years ago) Bowl brick + Mud brick Ceramic industry Couple burial Five altars Gold and Silver evidences Evidence of cloth, spinning, weaving Cylindrical seal with colorful cloth Type Necropolis site (burial ground) Near Jura Khatiya (another necropolis site of Gujarat)

Buddhist Sites

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Findings: Mahastupa, Apsidal Chaityagrihas, Votive Stupas Congregation hall viharas Life-size Stucco of Bodhisattva Rare octagonal-shaped Stupa Inscriptions Brahmi (Satavahana and Ikshvaku times, 2nd-3rd century AD) Coins Punch-marked, Kshatrapas, Romans, Mahatalavara chiefs Sculptures Life of Siddhartha-Gautama, Jataka tales, Buddhapada slabs Ikshvaku Dynasty: Capital: Vijayapuri-Nagarjunakonda Founder: Vashishthaputra Shantamula Religion: Shaivites (performed Vedic rites) Indigenous people: Chenchus in Nallamala Hills

Kathak Gharanas

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Feature Lucknow — Jaipur — Banaras Style Lasya (soft bhavas) — Purity of footwork — Tandava (spirit of bravery) Theme Thumris used — Devotion — Prayers of Shiva and Krishna Poetry Kavitts nominal; Thumris & Ghazals — Kavitts more often — Kavitts and Thumris equally Bols 'Tigda Dig Dig' — 'Ta Thai Thai Tat' — Same as Lucknow; 6 feet taps Costume Angarkha and Paijama (Muslim influence) — Bandi, Dhoti (male); Lehanga, Choli (female) — Dhoti only (male); Lehanga, Dhoti (female) Bhramari Not much used — More often — More often

Folk Dances & Theatre

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Origin Kakatiya dynasty Dedicated to Lord Shiva Purpose Performed before soldiers set to war Evidence Sculpture in Garbha Gudi (Sanctum Sanctorum) of Ramappa Temple, Warangal Base Sanskrit theatre traditions Meaning "Kuti" (combined/together) + "Attam" (acting) Features: Netra abhinaya (eye expression) Hasta abhinaya (language of gestures) Venue Traditionally performed in Kuttampalams Performers: Male: Chakyars Female: Nangiars Drummers: Nambiars Special techniques: Pakarnattam Switching between masculine/feminine, multiple roles Nangiar Koothu Solo female section (UNESCO Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage) Period 2nd Century BC Similar to Yakshagana of Karnataka Type Theatre combining dance, music, dialogue, costume, make-up Meaning "Chindu" means "jump" in Telugu Community Chindu Madiga (sub-caste of Madiga among SCs) Similar to Bhuta Kola of Karnataka Venue Open theatre in front of local temples Purpose Honor spirit of ancestors and gods Themes Vaishnavism, Shaktism, Shaivism Features Elaborate headgear and colorful costumes Bhuta Kola (Karnataka): Annual ritual performance worshipping local spirits/deities Performer believed to temporarily become the god Practiced in Tulu-speaking belt (Dakshina Kannada, Uttara Kannada, Udupi) Devotees of God Mahadeshwara Instrument Kamsale (brass musical instrument) Two parts: Adi Battalu (cup-shaped) and Gari (flat) Type Religious fervor + Martial dexterity Type Dialogue/debate performance Region Karavali and Malnad regions Features Sitting position, No dance or costumes Meaning "Tala" (cymbal) + "Maddale" (drum) Type Masked dance depicting Ramlila scenes Features: Golden masks No dialogues Background voices narrate story of Ramayana India connection First training and performance programme held in India

Martial Arts

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Identify the key current affairs updates regarding Martial Arts.	Type Ancient weapon-based martial art Mentioned in Silappatikaram, Sangam literature Origin ~1000 BC by Sage Agastya Munivar Age Archaeological surveys suggest 10,000 BC Meaning "Silam" (mountain) + "Bam" (bamboo) Key elements: Foot movement Kutta Varisai (empty hand version)

Musical Instruments

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Identify the key current affairs updates regarding Musical Instruments.	Type Bowed string instrument Community Manganiyar (Muslim musicians), also called Merasi Material: Body: Mango tree Bow stick: Khejari wood Bow hair: Horse tail Bow shape: Concave Strings 17 total: 3 main (goat intestine - Roda and Joda) 14 Jhara (5 copper + 9 steel wire)

Festivals

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Distinction: Largest tribal religious congregation in world 2nd largest fair in India (after Kumbh Mela) Tribe Koya (Dravidian language family) Frequency Once in 2 years (month of Magha/February) Location Medaram in Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary (part of Dandakaranya) Legend Tribal women Sammakka and Saralamma fought against Kakatiya rulers Location Jagadambika Temple on Golconda Fort Meaning "Bonalu" from "Bhojanalu" (food offered to goddess) Distinction Largest congregation of women for a festival worldwide Location Attukal Temple Ritual "Pongala" (to boil over) - women prepare sweet payasam (rice, jaggery, coconut, plantains) Only performed by Women Goddess Attukalamma (Bhagavathy) Guinness Record Largest gathering of women (2009) Type Ritualistic sacred dance Theme Victory of good over evil (legend of Lord Ayyappa) Recent news Chemical-based colours proposed to be banned; organic vermilion suggested

Historical Debates

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Meluhha Name given to IVC people by Mesopotamians in their inscriptions Bharat: Rigveda Jan Mandala — Dashrajan Yuddh (Battle of Ten Kings) Ravi River (Purushani), 5th century BC Mahabharata Bharat Tribe (Aryan tribe) Vishnu Purana Joint forces of 5 Aryans and Non-Aryans Hind Used by Persians (Achaemenid dynasty) Ind Arabs — Al-Hind (first invaders of India) Naqsh-e-Rostam inscription Hindustan Sassanid Empire (3rd century AD) G20 Summit Exhibits: 500-year-old Rigveda copy Handwritten Panini's Ashtadhyayi (preserved at LBS Institute, New Delhi)

Chola Administration

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Identify the key current affairs updates regarding Chola Administration.	Founder: Vijayalaya Chola Hierarchy: Central: Peruntaram (higher officials), Siruntaram (lower officials) Provincial: Mandalam (Provinces) Kottams/Valanadu (subdivisions) Nadu Head: Nattar, Council: Nattavai Ur (Village) Managed by Variyams (committees of male members)

Philosophers

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Identify the key current affairs updates regarding Philosophers.	Philosophy Advaita Vedanta (Non-dualism) Core belief Brahma (formless entity) is ultimate reality; World is maya (illusion) Mahavakyas: Tattvamasi (Chandogya Upanishad) Aham Brahmasmi (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad) Salvation Through knowledge (Jnana) 4 Peethas: Badrinath (North) Dwarka (West) Puri (East) Sringeri (South)

Additional Monuments

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Legend Believed to be Indraprastha established by Pandavas Built by Humayun (1533-38); some work by Sher Shah Suri Contains Qila-i-Kuhna Mosque (by Sher Shah) Recent excavation Found PGW (Painted Grey Ware) connected artifacts Coverage 60% of Delhi's archaeological finds Ancient names Avimukta (Shankaracharya called it Vimuktinagari) Also mentioned in Satapatha Brahmana, Gopatha Brahmana, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Foreign travelers: Fa-Hien Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) I-Tsing (Polonise) Peter Mundy (1632) Built by Sawai Pratap Singh (Kachhwaha Rajput ruler) in 1799 Architect Lal Chand Usta School Amber-Jaipur school (Dept. of painting) Material 5-storey Red Sandstone Style Blend of Rajput and Mughal architecture Design Shape of Krishna's crown Storeys: Top 3: Vichitra Mandir, Prakash Mandir, Hawa Mandir Prakash Mandir provides open terrace Unique feature No steps to upper floors; ramps for palanquins of royal ladies Built by Sawai Jai Singh II (founder of Jaipur) Completed 1734 Distinction One of oldest astronomical observatories; world's largest stone sundial Instruments 19 stone assemblies for celestial observation Purpose Calculate local time, interpret positions of celestial bodies Astronomical tradition Ptolemaic positional astronomy Publication Zij-Muhammad Shahi (astronomical tables by Sawai Jai Singh II) Built by Raja Man Singh in 1592; expanded by Raja Jai Singh I Ancient name Dhundar Material Pale yellow and pink sandstone + white marble Style Blend of Hindu and Muslim architecture Important buildings: Diwan-i-Aam Sheesh Mahal (Hall of Mirrors) Sukh Mahal Shila Devi Temple Ganesh Pol (gate to private palaces) Built by Widow Begha Begum in 1570 Distinction Precursor of Taj Mahal; first garden-tomb in Indian subcontinent (UNESCO) Prototype for Mausoleum of Jahangir at Shahdara, Lahore Style Synthesis of Persian architecture and Indian traditions Features: No minarets Double dome Chaharbagh (garden squares) with pathways and water channels Chhatris (kiosks) giving pyramidal shape Necropolis of Mughals Material Red sandstone + White and black marble borders Game origin Substantially pre-dates Mughal rule Equipment Cowrie shells used Evolution Early European variations include Ludo (British game, late 19th century)

Temple Schools

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Rulers Chandela dynasty (founder: Nannuka) Sculptures Erotic (inspired by Vatsyayana's Kamasutra) Material Sandstone Direction North or East facing Style Panchayatana style Features: Rekhaprasad shikharas (mountain range effect) High platform Hindu + Jain + Tantric influences Hindu Temples: Kandariya Mahadeva (grandest) Lakshman Temple (built by Dhanga) Chaturbhuja Temple (lacks erotic sculpture, faces west) Chausatha Yogini Temple Jain Temples: Parshvanath, Adinath, Shantinath, Ghantai

Cave Sites

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Patronage Ashoka (Mauryan period) Number 4 caves: Sudama, Lomas Rishi, etc. Meaning "Barabar" means "on par with one another" Material 7 rock-cut caves carved from granite Purpose Donated to Ajivika ascetics Lomas Rishi Cave: Elaborately decorated doorway (dwaara-torana) Row of elephants progressing towards stupa emblems Makara (crocodile) motif on torana ends Nagarjuni Hills (Dasaratha, 232-224 BCE): 3 caves: Gopika, Vadathi, Vapiya Naga-arjuni Divine White Elephant (naaga = elephant/serpent, arjuna = white) Founder Goshala Maskariputra (5th century BC) Contemporary of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha Philosophy Niyati (fate/determinism) - no impact of karma Practice Nudity (similar to Digambara Jains) Disappeared After 14th century Patronage Mauryan emperors donated Barabar and Nagarjuni caves

Stupas

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Identify the key current affairs updates regarding Stupas.	Period 2nd century BCE - 2nd century CE Patronage Satavahanas River Banks of Gundlakamma River Buddhism Centre of Hinayana Buddhism Features: Events of Buddha's life: Great Renunciation, Bodhi Tree, Throne Pillar of Fire, Dharmachakra on four sides Current status In dire need of tourism infrastructure

National Symbols & Architecture

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Architect Ganesh Bhikaji Deolalikar (chief architect) Style Indo-British style Seal design Reproduced from wheel on abacus of Sarnath Lion Capital (24 spokes) Motto "Yato Dharmastato Jayah" (from Mahabharata) Sculpture "Mother and Child" by Chintamoni Kar 4 Animals facing 4 Directions: Direction Animal — Symbolism West Horse (Kanthaka) — Buddha's departure from princely life East Bull — Zodiac sign Taurus (Buddha's birth month) South Elephant — Queen Maya's dream of white elephant North Lion — Attainment of enlightenment Other Elements: Satyameva Jayate From Mundaka Upanishad Dharma Chakra Buddha's first sermon (Dhammachakraparivartana) Built 1639 by Shah Jahan (5th Mughal Emperor) Material Red sandstone + White marble (NOT only red sandstone) Name origin Red sandstone enclosing walls Original purpose Palace of Shahjahanabad (fortified capital) Main entrance Lahori Gate opening at Chatta Chowk Drum House Naubat Khana Halls Diwan-i-Am (public), Diwan-i-Khas (private) Moti Masjid Built by Aurangzeb (NOT Shah Jahan)

Heritage Sites

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Location Banks of erstwhile Saraswati River (NOT Narmada) Built by Queen Udayamati as memorial to King Bhima I (Solanki dynasty, 11th century) UNESCO Status World Heritage Site (2014) Design Inverted Temple Style Maru-Gurjara (subset of Nagara style) Recognition On Rs 100 note; "Cleanest Iconic Place" (INDOSAN 2016) Site State — Key Features Badshahi Ashoorkhana Telangana (Hyderabad) — Shia mourning place built by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (1611); enamel tiles Tirumala Temple Andhra Pradesh (NOT Telangana) — Dravidian style, Ananda Nilayam, Saptagiri Asurgarh Fort Odisha — 2,300-year-old artefacts; 4 gates with guardian deities Established 1984 Type Non-profit NGO (NOT intra-government) Registration Societies' Registration Act, 1860 UN Status Special consultative status with ECOSOC (2007) Scope Tangible AND Intangible heritage (NOT only tangible) HQ New Delhi Achievements: Developed Raghurajpur (Odisha) as heritage village Pattachitra artists and Gotipua dance troupes Key Temples: Achyuta Raya (1534) Exemplary Vijayanagara architecture Hazara Rama Ramayana panels carved in stone Hemakuta group Cluster of Shiva shrines Kodanda Rama Near Virupaksha Bazaar Virupaksha Main Shiva temple (living temple) Other Structures: Lotus Mahal Secular building, Indo-Islamic style Rock-cut Narasimha on Shesha Monolithic marvel Stone Chariot At Vittala Temple Vijayanagara Style Features: Combination of Chola, Hoysala, Pandya, Chalukya + Indo-Islamic Yali (mythical horse) on pillars Rayagopurams (wood, brick, stucco) Central Kalyan Mandap

Temples

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Temple Builder — Period — Key Feature Brihadeshwara (Thanjavur) Rajaraja I — 1003-1010 CE — Dakshina Meru; Sivaganga Fort Brihadeshwara (Gangaikondacholapuram) Rajendra I — 1012-1044 CE — Bhogasakti & Subrahmanya bronzes; Saurapitha Airavatesvara (Darasuram) Rajaraja II — 1143-1173 CE — Chariot-shaped mandapa; 63 Nayanar friezes Chronology: Thanjavur (earliest) — Gangaikondacholapuram — Darasuram NOT in this group: Virupaksha Temple, Hampi (Vijayanagara period) Key Features: Exterior walls Lavishly decorated with intricate carvings Interior walls Plain (opposite of statement in MCQ) Shikharas Called Rekhadeuls Mandaps Called Jagmohan (NOT Rekhadeuls) NO pillars in porch; iron girders support roof Ground plan Square Surrounded by boundary wall (like Dravidian style) Example: Konark Sun Temple Built by Narasimhadeva I (Eastern Ganga, 1250 CE) Black Pagoda Materials: Chlorite (doorframes), Laterite (platform), Khondalite (main) Chandrabhaga Mela (February) Golden Triangle of Odisha: Konark + Jagannath (Puri) + Lingaraj (Bhubaneswar) Core Unburnt brick Outer surface Burnt brick Medhi and Toran Decorated by wooden sculptures Toranas (decorated gateways) Introduced by Shunga dynasty (NOT Dasratha) Triratna symbol Buddha (Enlightenment), Dharma (Doctrine), Sangha (Order) Oldest stupa in India Piprahwa (Uttar Pradesh) Founded 1680-81 by Merak Lama Lodre Gyatso (Gelug sect, Mahayana) Tibetan name Gaden Namgyal Lhatse ("celestial paradise in a clear night") Rank Largest in India, 2nd largest in world (after Potala Palace, Lhasa) NOT built at request of 5th Dalai Lama (Incredible India campaign error) Location Near Lahore, Pakistan (NOT Himachal Pradesh) Architecture Similar to Kashmiri temples Dentils, fluted pillars, trefoil arches, pointed rooflines Lake Temple complex around sacred Lake Katas Buddhist remains Also present in area 7 temples built on square platforms Built 1213 AD by General Recherla Rudra Ruler Kakatiya King Ganapati Deva Unique Only temple named after its sculptor (Ramappa) Special Features: Floating bricks — Roof made of bricks that float on water Sandbox technology — Foundation dug 3m, filled with sand + granite + jaggery + Karakkaya — Earthquake resistant Musical flute — At entrance, produces Sa-Ri-Ga-Ma when hit Dolomite carvings — So intricate that hair can pass through 11 Devanarthakis (female musicians) and Nagini as supporting beams 13 significant carvings on pillars (indicating 13th century)

Dance Forms

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Type Ancient dance drama (NOT 8-fold path, NOT martial art) Based on Gita Govinda by 12th century poet Jayadeva Theme Divine romance Meaning "Ashtapathi" = Eight steps (each hymn has 8 couplets) Related forms Mohiniattam, Kathakali (Kerala), Bharatanatyam (TN), Kuchipudi (AP), Manipuri, Odissi Inscription UNESCO Representative List of ICH (2010) Themes Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas Three Styles: Style Location — Special Feature Seraikella Chhau Jharkhand — Evolved from Parikhanda (martial art) Purulia Chhau West Bengal — Mask has GI Tag Mayurbhanj Chhau Odisha — No mask Type Brass musical instrument (NOT martial art) Devotees of God Mahadeshwara Structure: One part: Cup-shaped with broad base (adi battalu) Other part: Slightly flat (gari) Nature Religious fervor + martial dexterity Performed for Rain goddess Mariamman Nature Erotic Karakam structure: Pot filled with water or rice Three tiers of green, white, pink flowers Topped with green parrot model Two Types: Aatta Karakam Joy and happiness; entertainment Sakthi Karakam Temple offering; spiritual Also known as Jogai Theme Radha-Krishna Raslila Influence Indian + South-East Asian culture Repertoire: Ras (5 principal forms, 4 seasonal) Sankirtana (Kirtan-based) Thang-Ta (martial dance) Unique Features: No Ghunghrus (bells) - unique among classical dances Nagbhanda Mudra Body connected through curves (figure-8) Focus on hands and upper body (NOT facial movement) Expressions from Jayadeva, Vidyapati, Chandidas, Govindadas Instruments: Pung (barrel drum), Kartals (cymbals), Sembong, Pena, Flute, Esraj, Shankh Costume: Female: Barrel-shaped stiff skirt, velvet blouse, traditional veil Male: Dhoti-kurta, white turban, folded shawl Krishna: Yellow dhoti, dark velvet jacket, peacock feather crown Meaning Katha (story) + Kali (performance) Roots Kutiyattam + Krishnattam (dance-drama of Krishna stories) Language Manipravalam (Malayalam + Sanskrit mixture) Traditionally Male-dominated (now females welcomed) Timing Night-long performances ending in early morning Unique Features: Eyebrow and eye-ball movement Most extensive among all dance forms Movement of lower eye-lids (as per Natya Shastra) Weight on outer edges of feet (slightly bent and curved) Character Types: Satvika Noble, heroic, generous Rajasika Dynamic Tamasika Evil Make-up (Chutti): Rice paste + lime mixture for chutti Prominent lips, eyelashes, eyebrows Green Noble characters Tati (Red) Evil (like Ravana) Kari (Black) Hunters, monsters Yellow Women Famous Artists: Kalamandalam Krishna Prasad, Kalamandalam Kesavan, Kalamandalam Gopi Ekcharya Lasyam One dancer taking many roles in single performance Silappatikaram Ancient Tamil epic mentioning Bharatanatyam Devadasis Kept dance alive (Dassiattam) Thanjavur Quartet Chiniah, Ponniah, Vadivelu, Shivanandam Fire Dance Another name for Bharatanatyam Kataka Mukha Hasta Principal mudra symbolizing 'Om' Famous Artist: Mrinalini Sarabhai (trained in Bharatanatyam and Kathakali; founded Darpana Academy, Ahmedabad) State: Dance Tamil Nadu: Karakattam Maharashtra: Taakala/Koli Arunachal Pradesh: Gungtey (NOT Kashmir) Assam: Satoiya Nitya Sikkim: Tamang Selo (Damphu instrument) Tripura: Mamita (harvest festival) J&K: Fusim Dance (NOT Arunachal) Gujarat: Misra Raas/Gop Raas Uttarakhand: Hudka Chhudka

Music

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Meaning "Idea or imagination" (Persian) Origin Attributed to Amir Khusrau Popularity Greater scope for improvisation Composition Called Bandish (short songs of 2-8 lines) Unique feature Use of Taan Alap Given lesser room than in Dhrupad Types: Bada Khyal Slow tempo (vilambit) Chhota Khyal Fast tempo (drut) Bhendibazaar Gharana: Founded by Chhajju Khan, Nazir Khan, Khadim Hussain Khan (19th century) Known for breath control (long passages in single breath) Uses some Carnatic ragas

Festivals

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Celebrated by Women with flowers Arrangement Flowers in brass plate (taambalam) in circular rows, alternate colors Timing During Navaratri after monsoon Goddess Made of flowers each year, immersed on 10th day Symbolism Life, eternity, impermanence Temple Sabarimala (Ayyappa shrine) Occasion Makar Sankranti Features: Thiruvabharanam procession (sacred ornaments of Ayyappan) Congregation at hill shrine Makara Vilakku Light lit at Ponnambalamedu Celebrated by Koya tribe (NOT a dance form/music) Location Medaram, Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary Frequency Bi-annual (every 2 years) Scale Largest tribal festival in Asia (~1 crore attendees) Honors Twin goddesses Sammakka and daughter Sarakka History Tribal women who fought Kakatiya rulers Festival Location — Key Feature Owl Festival Purandar, Pune (Maharashtra) — First owl festival; awareness against superstitions; by Ela Foundation Flamingo Festival Pulicat Lake, Nelapattu BS — Migratory birds Waders Festival Mansagar, Jaipur — Indian Birding Fair

Paintings & Crafts

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Location Gujarat-Maharashtra border (Warli tribe) Resemblance Bhimbetka (NOT Ajanta) Geometry Geometrical patterns using: Triangle Conical trees Circle Sun/Moon Square Sacred enclosure/piece of land Central Motif: Chaukat/Chauk surrounded by scenes of fishing, hunting, farming, dances, animals, festivals Goddess: Palaghata (goddess of fertility) Colors: Base Mixture of mud, branches, cow dung — Red ochre colour Painting Only white pigment (gum + rice powder mixture) Meaning Patta (canvas/cloth) + Chitra (picture) Style Mix of classical and folk elements Colors Natural sources including burnt coconut shells, Hingula, Ramaraja, lamp black No pencil/charcoal used Finish Lacquer coating for glossy finish Themes Jagannath and Vaishnava cult, Shakti and Shaiva cults Palm leaf version Talapattachitra GI Tag Granted Location Mathura and Vrindavan (Vrajabhoomi) Type Art of paper stencilling Age 400 years old Origin Temples of Mathura and Vrindavan Association Vallabhacharya Sect of Vaishnavism Technique: Composition and drawing Expert cutting with fine scissors Use stencil to create images Mughal Ganjifa: Introduced by Akbar 8-suited pack with 96 cards Each suit: 2 court/figure cards + 10 numeral/pip cards Dashavatara Ganjifa (Hindu): 10 suits displaying 10 incarnations of Vishnu More complex composition Figures and suit signs familiar to Hindu players

Modern History

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Timeline: 1828 Raja Rammohan Roy founded Brahmo Sabha (later Brahmo Samaj) 1842 Debendranath Tagore joined 1858 Keshab Chandra Sen joined 1866 Split: Keshab founded Brahmo Samaj of India; Debendranath's became Adi Brahmo Samaj 1878 Another split: Sadharan Brahmo Samaj formed Sadharan Brahmo Samaj (1878): Cause Keshab's daughter (13) married to minor Maharaja of Cooch-Behar First President Anandamohan Bose (NOT Keshab Chandra Sen) Founders Ananda Mohan Bose, Shibchandra Deb, Umesh Chandra Datta Split from Brahmo Samaj of India (NOT Adi Brahmo Samaj) Core Principles: Twin pillars: Reason + Vedas/Upanishads Monotheism, oppose idolatry Criticize sati, caste system No definite stand on karma and transmigration Related Persons: Giani Pritam Singh (Ghadr Party) INA brain child Major Fujiwara (Japanese) INA brain child Captain Mohan Singh Led INA Azad Hind Government (21 October 1943, Singapore): Formed by Subhash Chandra Bose Cabinet: H.C. Chatterjee (Finance) M.A. Aiyar (Broadcasting) Lakshmi Swaminathan (Women) Declared war on Britain and USA Japanese handed over Andaman & Nicobar INA Trial Lawyers: Bhulabhai Desai, Kailash Nath Katju, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Jawaharlal Nehru Career: Joined INC: 1921 Mayor of Calcutta: 1923 President of AITUC (All India Trade Union Congress) Founded Independence of India League: 1928 (with Nehru) Congress President: 1938 (Haripura), 1939 (Tripuri) Founded All India Forward Bloc: 1939 Anti-Compromise Conference (Ramgarh): 1940 (with Kisan Sabha) Books/Publications: "The Indian Struggle" (1920-1942) - banned by British Newspaper: "Swaraj" INA Period: Founded Indian Legion (from PoWs in German hands) President of Indian Independence League: 1943 Revamped INA with Japanese support: 1943 Famous slogan: Jai Hind Type Armed rebellion (NOT unarmed) Location Odisha (March 1817) Against British East India Company Leader Baxi Jagandhu Bidyadhara (military chief of Raja of Khurda) About Paikas: Peasant militias of Gajapati rulers of Odisha Military service during war, cultivation during peace Enjoyed rent-free land tenures (hereditary) for military service and policing Causes: British took over hereditary rent-free lands after conquest of Khurda Extortion and oppression by Company Support: Rajas, tribals of Ghumusar, zamindars, village heads, peasants Outcome: Remission of arrears, reduced assessments, new settlement on fixed tenures Hunter Commission (Disorders Inquiry Committee): Formed by Government of India Indian Members: Sir Chimanlal Setalvad, Pandit Jagat Narayan, Sardar Sultan Ahmed Khan Mahatma Gandhi was NOT a member of Hunter Commission Protests: Sir Chettur Sankaran Nair Resigned from Executive Council Rabindranath Tagore Gave up knighthood Mahatma Gandhi Returned Kesar-e-Hind Congress Committee: Gandhi, C.R. Das, Fazl-ul-Huq, Motilal Nehru Dandi March: Date: 12 March - 6 April 1930 (24 days) From: Sabarmati Ashram (Ahmedabad) To: Dandi (coastal village, Gujarat) Participants: 78 trusted volunteers First demand to abolish salt tax By Moderates (NOT Gandhi first) Salt tax NOT abolished after Gandhi-Irwin Pact Gandhi's 11 Points: Prohibit intoxicants Change rupee-sterling ratio Reduce land revenue Abolish salt tax Reduce military expenditure Reduce civil administration expenditure Impose duty on foreign cloth Accept Postal Reservation Bill Abolish CID Release political prisoners Issue arms licenses for self-protection Gandhi-Irwin Pact: Mediator: Tej Bahadur Sapru "Consolation prize" - Allen Campbell Johnson "Two Mahatmas" - Sarojini Naidu Key Features: Diarchy at Provincial level (NOT Centre) Reserved subjects Governor + Executive Council Transferred subjects Indian ministers Legislative assembly expanded (~70% elected) Some women could vote Governor had veto power over council Bicameral legislature: Legislative Assembly + Council of State First provision for Public Service Commission Separated provincial budgets from Central Budget Communal representation extended to Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans Statutory commission after 10 years (Simon Commission) 3 of 6 Viceroy's Executive Council members to be Indian Founders: Maulana Mehmood Hasan, Maulana Syed Hussain Ahmad Madani, Maulana Ahmed Saeed Dehlvi Goals (initially): Freedom of India Restoration of Muslim Caliphate (after Turkey's WWI defeat) Contributions: Critique of two-nation theory Opposed Muslim League's Pakistan demand Participated in freedom struggle Post-Independence: Cause of Urdu Protection of Muslim personal laws Spreading education among Muslims Founded: 1920 in Bombay Founders: Lala Lajpat Rai, Joseph Baptista, N.M. Joshi, Diwan Chaman Lall Presidents (notable): Subhash Chandra Bose, Jawaharlal Nehru, V.V. Giri After 1945: Associated with Communist Party of India Status: Founder member of World Federation of Trade Unions; Oldest trade union federation in India Type Anglo-Manipuri War (NOT Maratha, Sikh, Afghan) Location Khongjom, Manipur Significance Last war of resistance Related Tourism: Swadesh Darshan Scheme North East Circuit: Imphal & Khongjom Kangla Fort Seat of Manipur's power till 1891 Khongjom Parva Manipuri performance commemorating the war

Important Personalities

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Notable Works: Statue of Unity (Sardar Patel) World's tallest statue; Sadhu Bet island, Narmada 45 ft Chambal Monument at Gandhi Sagar Dam, MP Bust of Mahatma Gandhi 21 ft Equestrian statue of Maharaja Ranjit Singh at Amritsar Recognition: Tagore Award Constructed by: Larsen & Toubro Birth name Ram Richpal Birth place Sampla, Rohtak, Haryana Title Rao Bahadur; knighted in 1937 Popular name Deen Bandhu Co-founder National Unionist Party (with Sir Sikandar Hyat Khan, Sir Fazli Husain, Sir Shahab-ud-Din) Legacy National Unionist Zamindara Party (formed by guar farmers, Rajasthan, 2013) Famous Works: Vande Mataram (from Anandamath, based on Sanyasi Rebellion) Durgeshnandini (1865) Kapalkundala (1866) Mrinalini, Vishbriksha, Chandrasekhar, Rajani, Rajsimha Devi Chaudhurani (1884) NOT his work: Jana Gana Mana (by Rabindranath Tagore) Magazine: Bangadarshan (1872) Sanyasi Rebellion: Sanyasi-Sadhus of Dasanami sect Fakirs of Madariya Sufi Silsila Led by Maznun Shah, then Chirag Ali Hindu leader Devi Chaudhurani (woman) supported Fakirs Location Varanasi Philosophy Nirguna Shakha of Bhakti Literary Works with Kabir's compositions: Bijak (earliest major text in modern Hindi) Kabir Parachai Sakhi/Shakhi Granth Kabir Granthawali Guru Granth Sahib (included in Sikh scripture) NOT his work: Sahitya Lahari Philosophy Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Non-dualism) Literary Works: Sri Bhashya Commentary on Brahma Sutras Bhagavad Gita Bhashya Commentary on Gita Vedantadipa, Vedantsara, Gadya Tayam Legacy: World's 3rd tallest statue being constructed in Hyderabad Original compilation Guru Arjan (5th Guru) as Adi Granth Final version Guru Gobind Singh (10th Guru) added to Adi Granth NOT written by Guru Nanak alone Contains teachings of: Bhakti saints: Kabir, Ramananda, Namdev Sufi saint: Sheikh Farid Language Sant Bhasa (related to Punjabi and Hindi) Script Gurmukhi (developed by Guru Angad) Other languages: Lahnda (Western Punjabi), Sanskrit, Sindhi, Persian, Braj Bhasha, Khariboli Origin Bhagat Jawahar Mal + Balak Singh; popularised by Baba Ram Singh Meaning Kukas (due to trademark style of reciting Gurbani) Clothing Only white, hand-spun attire Founded by Satguru Ram Singh Ji (1816-1885) Beliefs: Chanting of hymns Not part of mainstream Sikhism Distinct turban style, own Gurudwaras Vegetarianism, fire-altar marriages Caste abolition, intermarriages, widow remarriages Abstinence from liquor, meat, drugs Wanted to restore Sikh sovereignty over Punjab

Miscellaneous

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Diamond Triangle of Odisha: Sites: Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri, Udayagiri (URL) Part of Puspagiri University (atop Langudi Hills) Buddhism: Mahayana Later Vajrayana/Tantric Buddhism Significance: Buddha's relics and sculptures depicting Mahayana phase Atthamahāthānāni (8 Great Places of Buddhism):4 Places of Pilgrimage: Lumbini (Birth) Bodhgaya (Enlightenment) Sarnath (First Sermon) Kushinagar (Mahaparinibbana) 4 Places of Miracles: Sravasti (Twin Miracle) Sankasia (Descent from Heaven) Rajgir (Taming Drunken Elephant) Vaishali (Renunciation of Will to Live) NOT included: Parasnath (Jain site) Original Char Dham: Badrinath (North) Dwarka (West) Puri (East) Rameshwaram (South) Chota Char Dham (Uttarakhand): Yamunotri, Gangotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath Included: Dwarika, Puri NOT in Char Dham: Gangotri, Kedarnath (part of Chota Char Dham only) Location Nasik Dedicated to Saint Dnyaneshwara Rank World's Largest Dome (NOT 2nd largest) Structure: Rests on only 24 pillars Symbolism: 12 pillars Religious duty (mother, father, family, society, nation, world) 12 pillars 12 major religions 108 pillars total Sacred number in Hinduism Dnyaneshwara's Works: Dnyaneshwari/Bhavarthdipika (1290 CE) Amrutanubhava (1292 CE) Changdev Pasashti (1294 CE) Haripath, Abhangas Hut Style (most common): Bangla Temple Ek Bangla (Do Chala/Jor Bangla) Chala Type Char Chala, At-Chala (8 eaves), Baro Chala Associated with: Rani Rashmoni Founder of Dakshineswar Kali Temple Associated with Sri Ramakrishna Paramhansa Rani Rashmoni's Works: Road from Subarnarekha River to Puri Babughat (Rani Rashmoni Ghat) Ahiritola Ghat, Nimtola Ghat Location Aranmula, Kerala (banks of River Pampa) Artefacts Terracotta: Naga images, male bust, female face, ornaments Comparison Similar to Indus Valley Civilization Text reference: Tirunizhalmala (13th century Tamil work by Govindan of Ayirur) Land divisions: 10 cheris/karas (6 Puram + 4 Akam) Associated temple: Aranmula Parthasarathi Temple (Vaishnava)

Science & Technology Through Ages

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Scholar Period — Contribution Baudhayan 800 BCE — Sulba Sutras; Pythagorean theorem before Pythagoras; value of √2 Aryabhata 476-550 CE — Aryabhatiya; zero, decimal system, value of π (3.1416); Earth's rotation Brahmagupta 598-668 CE — Brahmasphutasiddhanta; negative numbers, zero operations Bhaskara I 7th century — Mahabhaskariya; sine approximation formula Bhaskara II 1114-1185 CE — Lilavati, Bijaganita; calculus concepts, cyclic method Srinivasa Ramanujan 1887-1920 — Number theory; 1729 (Hardy-Ramanujan number) Key Concepts: Shunya (Zero) Invented in India; used in Brahmi numerals Decimal System Originated from Vedic period Pi value Aryabhata gave accurate value Scholar Text — Contribution Lagadha Vedanga Jyotisha — Earliest astronomical text Aryabhata Aryabhatiya — Heliocentric model; eclipses; Earth's rotation Varahamihira Panchasiddhantika, Brihat Samhita — Compiled 5 astronomical systems Brahmagupta Brahmasphutasiddhanta — Gravity concept; lunar eclipses Astronomical Instruments: Jantar Mantar Built by Jai Singh II at Jaipur, Delhi, Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura Samrat Yantra World's largest sundial at Jaipur Scholar Text — Contribution Charaka Charaka Samhita — Father of Indian Medicine; internal medicine Sushruta Sushruta Samhita — Father of Surgery; 300+ surgical procedures; rhinoplasty Vagbhata Ashtanga Hridayam — Compiled works of Charaka and Sushruta Madhava Madhava Nidana — Pathology; disease diagnosis Key Contributions: Plastic Surgery Rhinoplasty by Sushruta Cataract Surgery Described in Sushruta Samhita Vaccination concept Early form in Ayurveda Yoga therapy Mind-body healing Achievements: Iron Pillar of Delhi 4th century CE; rust-resistant (98% wrought iron) Wootz Steel High carbon steel; exported to Damascus for swords Zinc extraction India was first to extract zinc (Zawar, Rajasthan, 6th century) PW Plus: The Delhi Iron Pillar has stood for 1600+ years without rusting - a metallurgical mystery where the iron's phosphorus-rich coating creates a protective layer that modern science is still studying! Bronze Technology: Lost-wax technique IVC period onwards Chola bronzes Pinnacle of Indian metallurgy Water Management: Stepwells Gujarat (Rani Ki Vav), Rajasthan Tank irrigation South India (Kalyani systems) Grand Anicut Kaveri river dam by Karikala Chola (2nd century CE) Architecture Technologies: Sandbox technology Ramappa Temple (earthquake-proof) Floating bricks Kakatiya temples Lime mortar Indo-Islamic construction Textile Technology: Muslin Dhaka muslin so fine it was called "woven air" Indigo dye India was main source for centuries Patola weaving Double ikat technique Text Author — Subject Arthashastra Kautilya — Economics, statecraft, mining Sulba Sutras Various rishis — Geometry for altar construction Siddhanta Shiromani Bhaskara II — Mathematics, astronomy Brihat Samhita Varahamihira — Encyclopedia (astronomy, astrology, gemology) Rasaratna Samucchaya Vagbhata — Metallurgy, alchemy Manasollasa Someshwara III — Encyclopedia (science, arts, games)

Revision Points (Final)

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Historical: India-Bharat debate (Meluhha, Hind, Al-Hind), Chola Administration (Mandalam, Nadu, Variyams). Philosophy: Shankaracharya (Advaita, 4 Peethas), Ajivikas (Niyati, Barabar caves). Monuments: Purana Qila (PGW finds), Hawa Mahal (Krishna crown, ramps), Amber Fort (Sheesh Mahal), Humayun Tomb (first garden-tomb). Temple Schools: Khajuraho (Chandela, Panchayatana, erotic), Odisha Golden Triangle (Konark, Lingaraj, Jagannath). Caves: Barabar (Ajivika, makara motif), Ellora (triple storey). Stupas: Chandavaram (Gundlakamma), Kesaria (tallest), Amaravathi (Ayaka pillars). S&T: Aryabhata (π, zero), Sushruta (surgery), Delhi Iron Pillar (rust-free), Wootz Steel, Sandbox Technology. Modern History: Brahmo Samaj splits, INA (Giani Pritam Singh, Mohan Singh), Paika Rebellion (armed), Salt Satyagraha (Dandi March), Montagu-Chelmsford (diarchy at province).

High-Yield Rapid Revision Additions

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List the major historical birth anniversaries commemorated by the government in 2024-2025.	Commemorations: Acharya Shri Vidyanand Ji: 100th Birth Anniversary (28 June 2025); commemorative stamp/coin released. Ahilyabai Holkar: 300th Birth Anniversary (31 May 2025) celebrated at Bhopal. Birsa Munda: 150th Birth Anniversary (15 Nov 2024) celebrated as "Janjatiya Gaurav Varsh" with the record-breaking "Jayati Jai Mamah Bharatam" folk dance. Dr. Syama Prasad Mookerjee: 125th Birth Anniversary (2025-2027). Constitution: 75th Anniversary celebrated on 26 November 2024. Samvidhan Hatya Diwas: Observed on 25 June 2025 to mark 50 years of the 1975 Emergency.
Detail major national cultural festivals and film awards in 2024-2025.	Festivals & Awards: Vividhhta Ka Amrit Mahotsav (2025): Organised by the South Zone Cultural Centre (SZCC, Thanjavur) at Rashtrapati Bhawan. Bharatiya Kala Mahotsav (2024): Organised by the North East Zone Cultural Centre (NEZCC, Dimapur) at Rashtrapati Nilayam, Hyderabad. 56th IFFI (2025): Held in Goa; Golden Peacock won by *Skin of Youth* (Vietnam). National Film Awards: Best Feature Film was *12th Fail*, Best Actor Vikrant Massey and Shah Rukh Khan, and Dadasaheb Phalke Award went to Mohanlal.
What is the Gyan Bharatam Mission (GBM) and other cultural outreach initiatives?	Cultural Outreach: Gyan Bharatam Mission (GBM): A national initiative designed to locate, digitize, and preserve India's vast manuscript heritage. Philately: 38 commemorative stamps released in 2024-2025 (including Chenab Railway Bridge, 75 Years of Supreme Court, and Silver Jubilee of Kargil Vijay). ICCR Installations: Placed statues of Mahatma Gandhi in Seattle, Nagasaki, and Camporotondo Etneo, and Lord Buddha in Colombo.

🖼️ Supplemental Asset Directory

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Supplemental Asset Directory

• Modhera Sun Temple:
• Moidams:
• Kangra Painting depicting Barah Maas:
• Madhubani Painting:

• Aru in Pahalgam won Best Tourism Villages Competition 2024 on World Tourism Day
• Padma Vibhushan (India's second-highest civilian award) 2025 recipients included former CJI Jagdish Singh Khehar, and posthumously Sharda Sinha and Kumudini Rajnikant Lakhia.
• Filmmaker Anuparna Roy won the Best Director Award at the Venice International Film Festival for her debut film Songs of Forgotten Trees.
• Dadasaheb Phalke Award, constituted in 1969, is India's highest cinema honour comprising a Swarna Kamal medallion, shawl and Rs 10 lakh cash; first awarded to Devika Rani; Mohanlal received the award for 2023.
• Tramjatra is a moving tram carnival started in 1996 by tram enthusiasts of Melbourne and Kolkata, celebrating Kolkata's 152-year-old tram legacy including the Nonapukur Workshops.
• For core conservation of protected monuments, government now allows corporates/PSUs/private donors to fund projects through the National Culture Fund (set up 1996, Rs 20 crore corpus) with 100% tax exemption, supervised by ASI under the National Policy for Conservation, 2014.
• The Yuge Yugeen Bharat Museum is being developed at the North and South Blocks near Rashtrapati Bhavan as part of the Central Vista project, to replace the National Museum and become the largest museum in the world.
• Swadesh Darshan (2014-15), a Central Sector Scheme by the Ministry of Tourism, promotes integrated development of theme-based tourist circuits including Buddhist, Coastal, Desert, Himalayan, and North East circuits.
• PRASHAD (Pilgrimage Rejuvenation and Spiritual Augmentation Drive), launched in 2015, develops pilgrimage tourism infrastructure at heritage and sacred sites.
• Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat pairs States/UTs for exchanges in language, cuisine, and art to foster mutual understanding.
• Gyan Bharatam Mission, launched via the "Reclaiming India's Knowledge Legacy through Manuscript Heritage" conference, aims to digitise India's roughly one crore manuscripts (over 10 lakh already digitised) and curb intellectual piracy.
• Gyan Bharatam Mission (Budget 2025-26, Rs 400 crore, HQ New Delhi under Ministry of Culture) replaces the slow-progressing National Manuscripts Mission (2003) and aims to create an ASI-like institution for manuscript preservation.
• India has world's largest collection of about one crore manuscripts, over 10 lakh have been digitised
• India collaborating with Thailand, Vietnam, and Mongolia on manuscript digitisation with shared traditions
• 'Gyan Bharatam' portal launched as digital repository to preserve and share ancient Indian manuscripts and traditional knowledge
• Mission objectives include Manuscript Resource Centres for cataloguing, Manuscript Conservation Centres, AI-assisted Handwritten Text Recognition digitisation, an IIIF-based National Digital Repository, and training in palaeography and conservation.
• Ministry of Culture launched Gyan-Setu, a National AI Innovation Challenge under Gyan Bharatam Mission, to make India's manuscript legacy accessible via AI.
• National Workshop on Jain Manuscriptology was held at Gujarat University under the Department for Validation of Indic Knowledge through Advanced Research, funded by the Pradhan Mantri Jan Vikas Karyakram (PMJVK) for minority community upliftment.
• Gyan Bharatam Mission (Union Budget 2025-26) is a survey, documentation, and conservation initiative for India's manuscript heritage, involving academic institutions, museums, libraries, and private collectors, and covering more than 1 crore manuscripts. 2025
• India's Osaka World Expo pavilion (curated by IGNCA) was designed as a tribute to "Bodhisattva Padmapani" of the Ajanta Caves, symbolising compassion, enlightenment and knowledge, under the Expo theme "Designing future society for our lives".
• Robert Prevost, elected Pope Leo XIV, is the first pope from the United States in the Catholic Church's 2,000-year history; Pope John Paul II was the last pope to visit India (1986 and 1999).
• Tamil Nadu's temple fund diversion controversy traces to the Religious Endowment and Escheats Regulation (1817), the Justice Party's 1922 Bill, and the Hindu Religious Endowments Act (1925), which allowed diverting surplus funds for secular use.
• The Tamil Nadu Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Act, 1959 (upheld by courts) retains provisions: Section 36 permits appropriating surplus temple funds after maintenance, and Section 66 allows funding universities/colleges teaching Hindu religion or temple architecture.
• The Dongria Kondh tribe of the Niyamgiri Hills, Odisha, worships Niyam Raja, the mountain deity residing at Niyam Dongar, and practises podu (shifting) cultivation of millets, pineapple, turmeric and vegetables on terraced forest slopes.
• Dongria Kondh women wear minimal traditional attire, multiple metallic nose pins, earrings, and forehead tattoos, while men wear turbans and loincloths with traditional tattoos.
• In 2013 the Supreme Court upheld the Dongria Kondh right to reject Vedanta Resources bauxite mining project in the Niyamgiri Hills, after Gram Sabhas unanimously voted against it.
• The Dongria Kondh and Kutia Kondh, both classified as PVTGs, inhabit the Niyamgiri Hills in Odishas Kalahandi and Rayagada districts, near the Karlapat and Kotgarh Wildlife Sanctuaries.
• The Kandha (Khond) tribe is the largest tribal community in Odisha (about 17.13% of the states tribal population); linguistically Dravidian, speaking Kui and Kuvi languages.
• Kandha women historically wore facial tattoos to appear less attractive and avoid sexual exploitation by landlords, local royals, and British colonisers.
• Kandha sub-groups include Dongria Kandha, Kutia Kandha, Desia Kandha, and Sitha Kandha, of which Dongria and Kutia are recognised as PVTGs; Kandha religion combines ancestor worship with the Earth Goddess Darni Penu.
• The Dard-Shin tribe, once rulers of large parts of Kashmir in the 16th century, now resides in the Gurez Valley; it traces its origin to Gilgit and is concentrated in Gurez, Tulail, and Drass (2011 Census population 48,440).
• The Jarawas of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are among the worlds oldest surviving tribes, living as nomadic hunter-gatherers in bands of 40-50; formal contact with the local population began in 1998.
• The 2011 Census recorded 380 Jarawa individuals out of 28,530 Scheduled Tribe people in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; other ST communities there are Andamanese, Nicobarese, Shompen, Onge and Sentinelese, all classified as PVTGs except the Nicobarese.
• The Ho tribe of Kolhan (Jharkhand) had a decentralised Manki-Munda self-governance system before British rule: a Munda headed each village and a Manki headed a pir, a cluster of 8-15 villages, hearing unresolved disputes.
• In 1833, Captain Thomas Wilkinson drafted 31 rules (Wilkinsons Rules) formalising Ho governance; the Kolhan Government Estate was established in 1837, and Kolhan remains largely exempt from general civil laws with Manki-Munda roles passing hereditarily from father to son.
• The Apatani tribe of the Ziro Valley (Lower Subansiri, Arunachal Pradesh) traditionally practised facial tattooing (tippei) and wooden nose plugs (yaping hullo) on women as protection against abduction; the practice was banned in the early 1970s.
• As per the 2011 Census, Indias Scheduled Tribe population of 10.45 crore speaks 461 tribal languages with 71 distinct mother tongues; around 82 tribal languages are vulnerable and 42 are critically endangered.
• Jodidaran, a centuries-old polyandrous tradition (one woman with multiple husbands), is practised by the Hatti tribe of the Trans-Giri region, Himachal Pradesh, granted ST status in 2022; the Hattis are governed by a traditional council called Khumbli, similar to the khaps of Haryana.
• Polyandry among the Hatti and similar Himalayan communities is rooted in the desire to preserve undivided family agricultural land.
• Tiwa tribe (Assam, also Meghalaya): historically called "Lalung"; "Tiwa" means "lifted from below"; split into Hill Tiwas (Tibeto-Burman speakers, matrilineal) and Plains Tiwas (Assamese-speaking, patrilineal).
• Tiwa society is clan-based, headed by village chief "Loro"; major festivals include Jonbeel Mela (barter fair), Wanchuwa, Sogra Misawa, Langkhun/Lankhong and Bihu; practise jhum (shifting) cultivation. Checking existing Cornell Notes formatting in the project for consistency.Converting every detail into VitePress + Cornell Notes format with zero content loss.