Science, Technology, Ports & Coinage in Ancient India

Science, Mathematics and Medicine

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Science, Mathematics and Medicine

Cue Words	Notes
Aryabhata (Mathematics & Astronomy)	- Authored *Aryabhatiya* & *Surya Siddhanta* - Stated Earth is spherical, rotates on axis, revolves around Sun (explained eclipses) - Introduced concept of **Zero**, calculated **Pi** ($\pi \approx 3.1416$), developed early sine tables
Brahmagupta & Baudhayana	**Brahmagupta:** authored *Brahmasphutasiddhanta*; first to treat zero as number & establish negative number rules **Baudhayana:** authored *Sulba Sutras* (geometric fire altar manuals); early **Pythagorean Theorem** statement & $\sqrt{2}$ calculation
Bhaskara II & Varahamihira	**Bhaskara II:** wrote *Lilavati* & *Siddhanta Shiromani*; pioneered calculus concepts & quadratic equations **Varahamihira:** authored *Pancha Siddhantika* (Greek/Roman/Indian astronomy synthesis) & *Brihat Samhita* (encyclopedia of architecture, weather, botany)
Sushruta (Father of Plastic Surgery)	- Authored *Sushruta Samhita*; detailed 120+ surgical instruments & suturing methods - Pioneered **Rhinoplasty** (nasal reconstruction) & cataract surgeries
Charaka (Father of Indian Medicine)	- Authored *Charaka Samhita*; main text on Ayurveda - Detailed **Tridosha** theory (balance of Vata/air, Pitta/fire, Kapha/water); emphasized diet, hygiene, medical ethics

Metallurgy and Engineering

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Metallurgy and Engineering

Cue Words	Notes
Mehrauli Iron Pillar (Delhi)	- Crafted during Gupta period (4th century CE) - Stands **rust-free** for 1,600+ years in open air (high phosphorus, protective crystalline iron hydrogen phosphate layer)
Wootz Steel	- High-carbon crucible steel developed in South India - Highly prized globally, exported to Middle East to forge **Damascus Blades**
Zinc Smelting at Zawar	- Ancient India pioneered industrial distillation & extraction of zinc at **Zawar (Rajasthan)** from 4th century BCE
Ramappa Temple & Chola Bronzes	**Ramappa Temple (Telangana):** Kakatiya period; built with **floating bricks** (sawdust/clay) & sandbox shock-absorption **Chola Bronzes:** perfected lost-wax casting (*Cire Perdue*) to create detailed sculptures (**Nataraja**)

Maritime History and Ancient Ports

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Maritime History and Ancient Ports

Cue Words	Notes
Lothal (Gujarat)	- World's oldest artificial tidal dockyard (Indus Valley Civilisation) - Connected Sabarmati river to Arabian Sea trade routes
Muziris (Kerala)	- Key Malabar Coast port; epicenter of pepper ("Black Gold") & spice trade with Roman Empire/West Asia
Arikamedu (Tamil Nadu)	- Indo-Roman trade station on Coromandel coast - Excavations revealed Roman amphorae, Arretine ware, bead workshops, Roman coins
Tamralipti (West Bengal)	- Primary eastern port on Ganges delta; departure point for trade & Buddhist pilgrims to Sri Lanka & SE Asia
Barygaza / Bharuch (Gujarat)	- Key Western port linked to silk route & Persian Gulf trade

Numismatic Evolution (Coinage)

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Numismatic Evolution (Coinage)

Cue Words	Notes
Punch-marked Coins	- Earliest currency (c. 6th century BCE); silver & copper - Irregularly shaped, no inscriptions or portraits; stamped with individual symbols (sun, bull, hills)
Indo-Greek Coinage	- First to issue **gold coins** in India - Introduced detailed portraits of kings, names, bilingual inscriptions (Greek & Kharosthi scripts)
Kushan Coinage	- Issued gold coins of high purity on large scale - Portrayed King Kanishka & depicted Greek, Roman, Persian, Hindu deities (Shiva with trident)
Gupta Coinage (Dinara)	- Golden age of numismatic art in India; detailed gold coins showing dynastic propaganda - Depicted king hunting lions, playing Veena (Samudragupta), performing Ashvamedha
Satavahana Coinage	- Famous for issuing coins made of **Lead**, potin, copper - Depicted ships with double masts, reflecting maritime trade power

UPSC Recall & Traps

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UPSC Recall & Traps

Cue Words	Notes
Sulba Sutras Trap	- Relates to **geometry** for constructing Vedic altars (NOT astronomy)
Gold Coins History Trap	- Indo-Greeks **introduced** gold coins in India; Kushans issued them on the **largest/purest** scale
Pachisi Court	- Ancient board game (precursor to Ludo) played by Akbar on large scale at Fatehpur Sikri
Ancient Ports Directory	- Korkai (Pandya): major pearl-fishing port - Puhar/Kaveripattinam (Chola): largest Sangam-era east coast port - Muchiri/Muziris (Chera): Roman trade center (spices/black pepper) - Arikamedu: Indo-Roman trading station (Roman pottery) - Ghantasala (Gupta): East Coast port for SE Asian trade
Ancient Glossary Terms	- Eripatti: land assigned for local tank maintenance (Chola) - Taniyurs: large autonomous Brahmin-dominated villages (Chola) - Vishti: forced labor extracted as tax (Gupta) - Kulyavapa / Dronavapa: units of land measurement (Gupta) - Ghatikas: Brahmin learning centers in Pallava kingdom - Araghatta: Persian water-wheel for crop irrigation

🖼️ Supplemental Asset Directory

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Supplemental Asset Directory

• Jantar Mantar Jaipur:
• Chola Bronze Nataraja Iconography:
• Bharat Mandapam Nataraja:
• Lothal Dockyard: Harappan Maritime Engineering:
• Punch-marked Coins: Earliest Currency:
• Indo-Greek Coins: Portraits & Script:
• Kushan Gold Coinage:
• Gupta Dynamic Coinage: Veena Player:
• Satavahana Lead Coins: Ship Symbols:
• Akbar's Coins:
• Ancient Pachisi Court at Fatehpur Sikri:

• PM reviewed progress of the National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC) at Lothal, Ahmedabad - once a thriving Indus Valley trading port 5,000 years ago; the NMHC, set up by MoPSW, is expected to be the world's largest maritime museum by 2029.
• The Indian Navy inducted the ancient stitched ship INSV Kaundinya, built using the 2,000-year-old Tankai stitched-shipbuilding method (coconut fibre, coir rope, natural resins, no nails), based on a 5th-century CE ship depicted in Ajanta Caves paintings.
• INSV Kaundinya sailed its maiden overseas voyage from Porbandar, Gujarat to Muscat, Oman; it is named after the legendary mariner Kaundinya, who sailed to Southeast Asia ~2,000 years ago and founded the Funan kingdom.
• Yuktikalpataru, a Sanskrit treatise by Bhoja Narapati, describes ancient Indian shipbuilding techniques, ship types, sizes, and materials.
• Sushruta described eight surgical procedures: chedya (excision), lekhya (scarification), vedhya (puncturing), esya (exploration), ahrya (extraction), vsraya (evacuation), sivya (suturing)
• National Ayurveda Day is now fixed on 23 September every year; it was earlier celebrated on Dhanvantari Jayanti (Dhanteras), the birth anniversary of Dhanvantari, physician of the Gods.
• Key Ayurveda texts include the Charaka Samhita (Charaka), Sushruta Samhita (Sushruta), Ashtanga Hridaya (Vagbhata), Madhava Nidana (Madhavakara), Bhavaprakasha (Bhavamishra), and Sharangadhara Samhita (Sharangadhara); the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali developed as an allied science of Ayurveda.
• The National AYUSH Mission (2014), a Centrally Sponsored Scheme, supports Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, and Homoeopathy systems in India.
• The World Ayurveda Congress is a biennial event; the first was held in 2002 at Kochi and the most recent in 2024 at Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
• Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar (RVP) 2025, instituted in 2023 replacing earlier science awards including the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize, has four categories: Vigyan Ratna, Vigyan Shri, Vigyan Yuva-SSB (under 45) and Vigyan Team, capped at 56 awards total.
• 2025 ICTP Prize (International Centre for Theoretical Physics, founded 1964 by Abdus Salam) was awarded to Titas Chanda (IIT-Madras) and Shitadhi Roy (ICTS Bengaluru) for work on quantum many-body systems.
• Astrophysicist Jayant Narlikar, Founder-Director of IUCAA Pune, co-developed the "steady state" model of the universe with Fred Hoyle (Hoyle-Narlikar theory), challenging the Big Bang theory; the 1965 discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation strengthened the Big Bang model instead.
• Saroj Ghose, founding Director-General of the National Council of Science Museums (NCSM, HQ Kolkata, formed 1978), built India's decentralised science museum network and later served as President of the International Council of Museums (ICOM), Paris.
• ICOM maintains formal ties with UNESCO/UN ECOSOC and, with INTERPOL, WIPO and the World Customs Organization, combats illicit trafficking of cultural goods; it is a founding member of the Blue Shield for heritage protection in conflicts.
• M.R. Srinivasan worked with Homi Bhabha on India's first research reactor Apsara, later became Chief Project Engineer of Tarapur and Madras Atomic Power Stations, Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission (1987) and Founder-Chairman of NPCIL.
• Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, father of modern Indian statistics, established the Indian Statistical Institute (1931), laid the foundations of the NSSO and CSO, and gave the Mahalanobis Distance measure; National Statistics Day is observed on his birthday, June 29.
• Sushruta (~600 BCE, Kashi), disciple of Divodasa, authored the Sushruta Samhita (part of Ayurveda's Great Trilogy with Charaka Samhita and Vagbhata's Astanga Hridaya) and is known as the "Father of Surgery," describing 8 surgical procedures.
• Sushruta was first to study human anatomy using a dead body, is called the "Father of Plastic Surgery" for nose reconstruction/skin grafting, and established an early code of medical ethics at Benares University.
• Charaka (2nd century BCE-2nd century CE, NW India), royal physician of the Kushan Kingdom and "father of Indian medicine," authored the Charaka Samhita based on the Agnivesha Tantra, divided into 8 Ashtanga Sthanas.
• Charaka's Tridosha theory holds body function relies on Vata (movement), Pitta (transformation), Kapha (lubrication/stability), with disease arising from their imbalance; the Charaka Samhita also catalogues medicinal plants like Ashwagandha, Tulsi, Triphala.
• Radiocarbon (Carbon-14) dating, developed in the late 1940s by Willard Libby at the University of Chicago, determines the age of organic material up to ~60,000 years old by measuring the decay of C-14 after an organism's death.

⚗️ Panini's Ashtadhyayi & Rasashastra (Ancient Alchemy)

• Panini (c. 6th–4th century BCE): Sanskrit grammarian from Shalatula (near modern Attock); authored the Ashtadhyayi, a treatise of ~4,000 sutras systematising Sanskrit grammar and phonetics — regarded as a foundational text in linguistics and an early example of formal/generative grammar, predating modern linguistic theory by over two millennia.
• Rasashastra: Branch of Ayurveda dealing with metals, minerals, and their medicinal/alchemical processing (Rasa = mercury); associated with the alchemist-scholar Nagarjuna (distinct from the Buddhist Madhyamaka philosopher of the same name), traditionally credited with texts on mercury-based preparations (Rasa Ratnakara).

I'll check how existing Cornell Notes sections are structured in this project so the conversion matches the house style.Converting every detail from the source into zero-loss VitePress Cornell Notes markdown:

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Cities of the Far South

Cities of the Far South — Overview & Greco-Roman Context

Cue Words	Notes
How do Greco-Roman sources and modern scholarship frame early historical South Indian urban centres?	Sources & Framework: Greco-Roman sources mention many towns and cities and use the term emporium for coastal towns associated with foreign trade. Champakalakshmi (1996: 117–40) has given a comprehensive account of the urban centres of early historical South India.

Chera Cities — Vanji / Kuravur / Karur

Cue Words

Notes

Analyse Vanji/Kuravur/Karur as a Chera political, craft, and trade centre with literary, numismatic, and excavation evidence.

Identity & Location: Vanji or Kuravur/Karur (Vanchi): Situated on the Amaravati river (a tributary of the Kaveri). Political centre as well as an important centre of crafts and trade, as per many literary and non-literary sources. Numismatics & Roman Contact: Chera mint claimed to be located here due to discovery of copper and silver Chera coins. Large quantity of Roman coins found at nearby area Vellavur. Roman king Claudius coin found on the bed of the Amaravati River. Excavations: Yielded BRW (some with graffiti marks), pieces of Roman amphorae, and locally made rouletted ware. Crafts & Inscriptions: Literary sources refer to jewel making as an important craft of Karuvur. Confirmed by discovery of finger rings with various motifs carved on them (including those in the Graeco-Roman style) and legends giving the names of various individuals. Donations by rulers and merchants are mentioned in early Tamil-Brahmi donative inscriptions at Pugalur and Arachchalur.

Chera Cities — Muchiri / Muziris

Cue Words

Notes

What do the Periplus, Pliny, and the Vienna Papyrus record about Muchiri/Muziris as a Chera trade emporium?

Classical & Documentary Sources: Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Speaks of cargo-laden ships landing here from Arabia and Egypt, and gives long lists of imports and exports. Pliny’s Natural Historia: States that due to the danger of pirates, ships had to anchor some distance away. Vienna Papyrus (2nd Century CE): Records an agreement concerning the transportation of goods between two merchants — one based in Alexandria, the other in Muchiri.

Pandya Cities — Madurai

Cue Words

Notes

Describe Madurai as a Pandya urban centre from Maduraikkanchi, Arthashastra, craft references, and Alagarmalai inscriptions.

Literary Description (Maduraikkanchi / Pattuppattu): Maduraikkanchi text, part of the Pattuppattu, describes it as a large, grand city, enclosed by walls on three sides and the Vaigai river on the fourth. Mention of its palace, temples, large houses, and two markets. Crafts & Trade: Literary sources describe it as a major centre of crafts: making of gold ornaments, ivory work, inlay work, chank cutting, and bangle making. References to its traders selling pearls and precious stones. The Arthashastra mentions Madurai as a centre of fine cotton textiles. Epigraphy: Inscriptions at Alagarmalai record endowments made by merchants from Madurai.

Pandya Cities — Korkai

Cue Words

Notes

Why was Korkai celebrated as a pearl-fisheries centre, and what do excavation and location evidence show?

Reputation & Sources: Sangam poems, Indica, and Arthashastra celebrated it as a centre of pearl fisheries. Confirmed by pearl oysters found in the excavations. Location Then vs Now: Right now, an inland site on the Vaigai River, but during early historical times it was no doubt right on the sea coast. Material Culture & Chronology: BRW and locally made rouletted ware found, along with traces of NBPW sherds from the site. A radiocarbon date takes the beginning of the settlement to as early as the 8th century BCE.

Chola Cities — Uraiyur

Cue Words

Notes

Analyse Uraiyur as early Chola capital: fortifications, textiles, megalithic burial grounds, and three excavation periods.

Political & Literary Profile: Uraiyur — capital of the early Cholas. Sangam poems describe it as a great fortified city with magnificent buildings. Poems also mention burial grounds full of stones on its outskirts — a description strongly reminiscent of megaliths. Fine textiles of Uraiyur are mentioned in Tamil and Graeco-Roman texts. Excavation Phases: Three phases of occupation at the site. Period I pottery: BRW, russet-coated painted ware, rouletted ware, and arretine ware; some potsherds had graffiti and inscriptions in Brahmi of the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. Period II: BRW gradually replaced by red-slipped ware; a rectangular cistern found at this level was identified as a dyeing vat. Period III: Belonged to the early medieval period.

Chola Cities — Kaverippumpattinam / Pumpuhar / Puhar

Cue Words

Notes

Detail Puhar (Kaverippumpattinam) as port capital: classical names, Pattinappalai markets, irrigation, boat platforms, Buddhist remains, and later Chola coin evidence.

Names, Span & Classical Identity: Kaverippumpattinam / Pumpuhar / Puhar (3rd century BCE – 12th century CE). Classical accounts refer to it as Khaberis or Camara. An entire Sangam collection — the Pattinappalai — is devoted to a description of this place. Urban Layout & Society: References to its two bustling markets laid out between the two sectors of the city, guarded by officers of the king. Inhabitants who spoke different languages. Infrastructure & Archaeology: At Vanagiri: remains of an artificial channel that drew water from the Kaveri into a reservoir for irrigation purposes, probably built in the early centuries CE. At Kilayur: brick platforms for landing boats. At Pallavanesvaram: a Buddhist temple and monastery dated to about the 3rd century. Later Continuity: Large number of early medieval Chola coins found at Kaveripattinam indicates that it continued to be an important port in later times as well.

Chola Cities — Kachchi (Kanchi) & Vasavasamudram

Cue Words

Notes

What early historical remains link Kanchi of the Sangam texts to later Pallava Kanchipuram, and how does Vasavasamudram fit as its sea port?

Kachchi (Kanchi): Famous temple city and Pallava capital of Kanchipuram in later centuries. Remains of the early historical period excavated in the area of the Shankara matha. Findings (Shankara Matha Area): BRW, black-slipped ware and rouletted ware, conical jars, terracotta figurines, and a Satavahana coin of the 2nd century CE. Findings near Kamakshi Temple: Three rouletted ware, terra sigillata, beads, terracottas, and iron artefacts. A structure was identified as a Buddhist shrine. Vasavasamudram (Port Link): At the mouth of the Palar river; probably the port connecting Kanchi to the sea. Excavations yielded amphorae sherds, rouletted ware, and beads. Remains of brick structures, terracotta double ring wells, and heaps of shell lime and beads. No BRW was reported. Possible identification with Nirppeyarru, a port mentioned in texts.

Chola Cities — Kodumanal

Cue Words

Notes

Why is Kodumanal critical for early literacy and craft production in the Tamil region (3rd CBC–3rd CAD)?

Site Profile: Kodumanal (3rd century BCE – 3rd century CE): Habitation-cum-burial site on the northern bank of the Noyyal, a tributary of the Kaveri. Identifiable with the ancient city of Kodumanal, famed in Sangam texts for gem and jewellery work. Industrial Evidence: Iron-and-steel making: two furnaces and iron slag found. Gemstone cutting, spinning, weaving, and manufacture of shell bangles — major industrial centre. Literacy Evidence: Over 100 inscribed pieces of pottery in Tamil language and Tamil-Brahmi script found in excavations. A few inscriptions are in the Prakrit language and Brahmi script. Kodumanal gives important evidence of the beginnings of literacy and the development of centres of craft production.

Kautilya’s Timetable for a King

Kautilya’s Timetable for a King (Arthashastra 1.19.16)

Cue Words

Notes

How does Arthashastra 1.19.16 structure the king’s day and night, and what activities fill each unit?

Time Division: Arthashastra 1.19.16 recommends that the king divide the day and night into eight parts each. Total of 16 units of time, each consisting of 1½ hours, each associated with specific activities. Bath and sleep activities are eliminated from discussion in the summary table below (though sleep-related night slots appear in the schedule as recorded). Day Timetable (Immediately After Sunrise): Receive reports on defence and accounts of income and expenditure. Look into affairs of people of cities and countryside. Receive revenue in cash and assign tasks to Heads of Departments (HoD). Consult his council of ministers through correspondence and receive secret information brought in by spies. Relax and enjoy himself or hold consultations. Review elephants, horses, chariots, and troops. Discuss military policy with the commander-in-chief. Night Timetable: Interview secret agents. Go to bed to strains of musical instruments. Continue to sleep. Awaken to the sound of musical instruments and ponder over the science of statecraft and on the work to be done. Consult counsellors; dispatch secret agents. Receive blessings from priests; see his physician, chief cook, and astrologer.

Raja Sawai Jai Singh II (1686–1743)

Raja Sawai Jai Singh II — Title, Politics & Jaipur City Planning

Cue Words

Notes

How did Sawai Jai Singh II obtain the title ‘Sawai’, abolish Jaziya influence, and plan Jaipur on a grid of nine cosmic zones?

Title ‘Sawai’: Title of ‘Sawai’ from Emperor Aurangzeb, who declared him a quarter superior to his famous forebearer Mirza Raja Jai Singh (d. 1667) after he captured the Fort of Vishalgarh from the Marathas in 1701. Officially recognized by an Imperial Edict in 1712. To commemorate it, the rulers of Jaipur began the practice of flying two flags — one full and one quarter-sized. Political Role: On his instigation, the new Emperor abolished the hated Jaziya tax imposed on the Hindus. Jaipur Grid Planning: Constructed Jaipur by combining aspects of the ancient Hindu treatise on architecture, the Shilpa Shastra, and plans of many European cities of the period with Jai Singh’s own ideas. Built on the grid system with nine rectangular zones corresponding to the nine divisions of the universe. Different zones allotted to different professions. European travellers of the time — Frenchman Louis Rousselet and English bishop Heber — were greatly impressed by Jai Singh’s unparalleled excellence in city-planning.

Raja Sawai Jai Singh II — Jantar Mantar Observatories & Zij-e-Muhammad-Shahi

Cue Words

Notes

What was Jai Singh’s astronomical programme: observatories, Zij-e-Muhammad-Shahi, and his eclectic manuscript library?

Observatories (Jantar Mantar Tradition): Received Imperial backing for building his Astronomy Observatories at Delhi, Jaipur, Varanasi, Ujjain and Mathura. Zij-e-Muhammad-Shahi: Titled the astronomical work he completed in 1728 as ‘Zij-e-Muhammad-Shahi’. Grand Passion — Scholarship & Instruments: Astronomy was Jai Singh’s grand passion. Scholar with an eclectic collection of astronomical manuscripts and tables from Arabia and Europe, including: Englishman John Flamsteed’s Historia Coelestis Britannica Portuguese Pere de la Hire’s Tabulae Astronomicae Turkish royal astronomer Ulugh Beg’s tables Zij Ulugh Begi Greek Ptolemy’s Almagest Reproduced de la Hire’s reflection table. Used a European Telescope to study celestial bodies.

Rana Kumbha (1433–1468 CE)

Rana Kumbha — Forts, Wars & Vijay Stambha

Cue Words

Notes

List Rana Kumbha’s five forts, his foes, and the context and dimensions of the Vijay Stambha at Chittorgarh.

Five Forts: Built five forts to secure his kingdom: Achalgarh, Kumbhalgarh, Kolana, Vairat, and Maddan. Kumbhalgarh is Rajasthan’s highest fort. Military Context: Surrounded by foes: Mahmud Khalji of Malwa, Qutbuddin Ahmad Shah II of Gujarat Sultanate, Shams Khan of Nagaur, and Rao Jodha of Marwar. Successfully defended Mewar and expanded his kingdom. Vijay Stambha (Victory Tower): To commemorate his resounding victory over the combined armies of Malwa and Gujarat in 1440 AD. Erected the famed 37 metre, 9-storey high ‘Vijay Stambha’ at Chittorgarh. Completed in 1448 AD.

Rana Kumbha — Music, Literature & Kirti Stambh Prashashti

Cue Words	Notes
What music treatises and literary works are associated with Rana Kumbha’s reign?	Personal Scholarship: Accomplished veena player. Wrote a commentary on Jaidev’s Gita Govinda. Wrote an explanation for Chandisatkam. Music Treatises: Sangeet raj Sangeet mimansa Sangeet ratnakar Shudprabandha Court Scholars: Scholars Atri and his son Mahesa wrote Prashashti on the Kirti Stambh.

Rani ki Vav

Rani ki Vav (Also on ₹100 Note)

Cue Words	Notes
Who built Rani ki Vav, for whom, in what style, and what is its architectural character?	Patronage & Setting: Built on the Saraswati River in the 11th century by Chalukyan/Solanki queen Udaymati for her husband King Bhima-I. Also considered as an Inverted Temple. Style & Structure: Solanki Architecture / Maru-Gurjara Style. Seven levels of stairs. Also appears on the ₹100 note.

Rakhigarhi

Rakhigarhi — Harappan Township & Excavation Findings

Cue Words	Notes
What is Rakhigarhi’s rank among Harappan townships, who excavated it, and what materials and structures were found?	Status: One of the five known biggest townships of the Harappan civilization. Excavator: Excavated by Shri Amarendra Nath. Material and Findings: Mud-brick and burnt-brick houses Drainage system Ceramic industry Animal sacrificial pit (lined) Triangular and circular fire altars Cylindrical seal with a symbol of an alligator Wheel of terracotta

Different Versions of the Ramayana

International & Regional Versions of the Ramayana

Cue Words

Notes

Map major Indian and international Ramayana versions with country and distinctive points.

Indian / Regional Versions: Paumachariya: Jain version — focuses on Ahimsa; Lakshmana killed Ravana. Chandrabati: Bengali poetess — focuses on Sita’s perspective. Dasarata Jataka: Buddhist version — Dashrath sends Ram and Sita to forest to save them from third wife; no abduction of Sita. Hobutsushu and Sambo-Ekotoba: Japan. Janakiharan: Sri Lanka. Siddhi Ramayana: Nepal. Southeast / East Asian Versions: Reamker: Cambodia. Yamayana: Myanmar. Hikayat Seri Laksman: Malay. Ramakovaca: Bali. Maharadia Lawana: Philippines. Liudu ji jing: China.

Vijaya Temple / Bijamandal Mosque (Vidisha)

Vijaya Temple / Bijamandal Mosque — Builders, Dedication & Later History

Cue Words

Notes

Clarify the contested builders, dedication, Al-Biruni/Aurangzeb layers, and famous sculptures of the Vijaya Temple (Bijamandal) at Vidisha.

Modern Association: As per popular belief, an inspiration behind the New Parliament Building. Builders (No Clarity): Some sources claim one Vachaspati, probably the Pant Pradhan of the Chaulukya/Solanki dynasty. Other sources claim Maharaja Naravarman (Paramara) as one of its builders. There is no clarity on builders. Dedication & Local Tradition: Believed to be dedicated to Devi Vijaya Rani, which then came to be called Bija Mandal. Locals say the Vijaya Rani Bhavya Mandir had a beautiful idol of the eight-armed Goddess Charchika Mata. Perhaps in this time that traditional worship of Naga Devata began on the auspicious occasion of Naga Panchami. Destruction & Rebuilding: Al-Biruni mentions that Ghazni reduced the grandest temple of the 9th–10th century to rubble. He succeeded to some extent, but the temple was rebuilt by the Paramara kings. Aurangzeb Phase: Aurangzeb built the Alamgiri mosque over the ruins and renamed the city Alamgiripur. Famous Sculpture: Mahishasura Mardini Eight-armed Lord Ganesha Dancing women, musicians Dancing Sapta Matrikas Gajalakshmi Pavilion, Surya Temple & Stepwell: Vast pavilion made of stone had a temple dedicated to Surya Bhagawan as per an inscription. An ancient stepwell to the north of the temple has exquisitely carved pillars of the 8th century and scenes of Krishna Leela on its sides.