Indian Literature & Languages: Ancient Canons to Classical Languages
Ancient Sanskrit and Canonical Literature
Ancient Sanskrit and Canonical Literature
| Vedic Literature (Shruti & Smriti) | - **Shruti (Revealed):** Four Vedas - *Rig Veda:* hymns (*Suktas*) to nature deities - *Sama Veda:* rhythmic chants & melodies (origin of Indian music) - *Yajur Veda:* sacrificial formulas & rituals - *Atharva Veda:* charms, spells, early medicine - **Associated Texts:** Brahmanas (ritual explanations), Aranyakas (forest books/mysticism), **Upanishads** (philosophical treatises on Brahman/Atman, Vedanta foundation) |
| Classical Sanskrit Drama | - **Kalidasa:** *Abhigyanashakuntalam*, *Vikramorvashiyam*, poems (*Meghaduta*) - **Shudraka:** *Mricchakatika* (The Little Clay Cart) — social realism, poverty, love - **Bhasa:** *Swapnavasavadatta* (Vision of Vasavadatta) |
Buddhist and Jain Canons
Buddhist and Jain Canons
| Buddhist Literary Tradition (Pali & Sanskrit) | - **Pali Canon (Tripitaka):** - *Sutta Pitaka:* Buddha's discourses & teachings - *Vinaya Pitaka:* monastic rules & regulations (*Sangha*) - *Abhidhamma Pitaka:* philosophical & psychological analysis - **Non-Canonical Works:** - *Milindapanha:* dialogues between Indo-Greek King Menander (*Milinda*) & monk Nagasena - *Jatakas:* folk tales of Buddha's previous births |
| Jaina Literary Tradition (Prakrit & Ardhamagadhi) | - **Agamas:** primary canonical scriptures with Mahavira's teachings - **Other Texts:** devotional hymns & commentaries in regional languages (Old Kannada, Tamil) |
Sangam Tamil and Southern Literature
Sangam Tamil and Southern Literature
| Sangam Literature (Tamil Assembly & Themes) | - Secular assemblies (Sangams) in Madurai under Pandya kings - Predominantly secular themes: - *Akam:* inward-looking poems on love & human emotions - *Puram:* outward-looking poems on war, heroism, public actions |
| Sangam Compilations & Epics | - **Compilations:** *Ettutogai* (8 Anthologies), *Pattupattu* (10 Idylls) - **Tolkappiyam:** by Tolkappiyar; oldest surviving Tamil grammar book & social life description - **Tamil Epics:** - *Silappadikaram:* Tale of the Anklet by Ilango Adigal (Kovalan, Kannagi, Madhavi) - *Manimekalai:* Buddhist epic by Sathanar (sequel to Silappadikaram) |
Medieval Vernacular and Persian Literature
Medieval Vernacular and Persian Literature
| Vijayanagara & Bhakti Vernacular Literature | - **Vijayanagara:** King **Krishnadevaraya** wrote Telugu masterpiece **Amuktamalyada** (life of Andal) & Sanskrit drama *Jambavati Kalyanam* - **Bhakti Poetry:** local dialects bypassing Sanskrit — Surdas (Braj Bhasha), Sant Tukaram (Marathi), Kabir (Sadhukkari), Guru Nanak (Punjabi, *Guru Granth Sahib*) |
| Persian Court Literature & Chronicles | - Persian = official court language of Sultanate & Mughals - **Amir Khusrau:** pioneer of *Khayal* music & *Ghazal* poetry; wrote in Persian & early Urdu (*Hindavi*) - **Mughal Chronicles:** *Baburnama* (Babur in Chagatai Turkish), *Akbarnama* (Abul Fazl in Persian), *Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri* (Jahangir in Persian) |
Language Families and Classical Status
Language Families and Classical Status
| Language Families of India | - **Indo-Aryan Family:** ~74% population (Northern, Western, Eastern India — Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Sanskrit) - **Dravidian Family:** ~24% population (Southern India — Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam) - **8th Schedule:** 22 officially recognized languages |
| Classical Languages Status & Criteria | - **Six Classical Languages:** Tamil (2004), Sanskrit (2005), Kannada (2008), Telugu (2008), Malayalam (2013), Odia (2014) - **Eligibility Criteria:** high antiquity of early texts (1500–2000 years); valuable ancient literature body; original non-borrowed literary tradition |
UPSC Recall & Traps
UPSC Recall & Traps
| Exam Traps & Key Facts | - Sangam Theme: strictly **secular** (*Akam*/*Puram*), NOT religious - Classical Languages: list of **six** classical languages & criteria frequently tested - Milindapanha: written in **Pali** as dialogue (Indo-Greek relations source) - Tolkappiyam: **grammar** text outlining ancient Tamil society, NOT an epic - Playwrights: Bhavabhuti, Hastimalla, Kshemeshvara - Persian Translations: *Razmnama* (Mahabharata); *Sirr-ul-Akbar* (Upanishads by Dara Shikoh) - Bani Thani: Kishangarh School of Rajasthan |
🖼️ Supplemental Asset Directory
Supplemental Asset Directory
- Rigveda Manuscript (G20 Exhibit):
- Brahmi Script Evolution:
