The Delhi Sultanate: Prelude and Dynastic Cycles (1206-1526)

1. The Islamic Prelude: Arab and Turkish Invasions

• Arab Conquest of Sindh (712 CE): Led by Muhammad bin Qasim (under the Umayyad Caliphate).
  • Defeated King Dahir at the Battle of Raor.
  • Source: Chachnama (13th c. Persian translation).
• The Ghaznavids (10th-11th Century):
  • Mahmud of Ghazni: Attacked India 17 times (c. 1000-1027). Plundered Somnath (1025).
  • Goal: Resource extraction and iconoclasm, not permanent political rule in the heartland.
  • Intellectuals: Al-Biruni (Kitab-ul-Hind) and Firdausi (Shah Nama).
• The Ghorian Conquest (Late 12th Century):
  • Muhammad Ghori (Muizuddin bin Sam): Unlike Mahmud, his objective was territorial empire.
  • 1st Battle of Tarain (1191): Ghori defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan.
  • 2nd Battle of Tarain (1192): Ghori defeated Prithviraj; established Turkish rule.
  • Battle of Chandawar (1194): Ghori defeated Jaichandra of Kannauj.
• Bengal/Bihar Conquest: Bakhtiyar Khilji (Ghori’s general) destroyed Nalanda/Vikramshila and overthrew the Senas.

2. Mamluk / Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)

• Qutb-ud-din Aibak: Lakh Baksh (Giver of Lakhs).
  • Initiated Qutb Minar (dedicated to Sufi saint Bakhtiyar Kaki).
  • Built Quwwat-ul-Islam (Delhi) and Adhai Din Ka Jhopra (Ajmer).
• Iltutmish (Real Consolidator):
  • Received Mansur (Letter of Investiture) from the Caliph of Baghdad.
  • Diplomatic Prowess: Saved India from Chengiz Khan by refusing asylum to Khwarizm Shah Jalaluddin Mangabarni.
  • Administrative Innovations: Iqta system (land assignments), Turkan-i-Chahalgani (Corps of 40), Silver Tanka and Copper Jital.
  • Iqta Significance (Thapar): Unlike the earlier Samanta system, Iqtas were transferable revenue assignments. This prevented the rise of a landed hereditary aristocracy and strengthened central control.
• Razia Sultan (1236-40): First female Muslim ruler.
  • Appointed Yaqut (Abyssinian slave) as Amir-i-akhur (Master of Stables).
  • Rebellion by Altuniya (Bhatinda). Married him before being killed near Kaithal.
• Ghiyasuddin Balban:
  • Theory: Niyabat-i-Khudai (Right hand of God) and Zill-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God).
  • Customs: Sijda (Prostration), Paibos (Kissing feet). Introduced Nauroz (Persian New Year).
  • Admin: Broke Chahalgani. Appointed Barids (Spies). Diwan-i-Arz (Military).
  • Justice: Publicly flogged Malik Bagbaq (Governor of Badaun) for cruelty.
  • Policy: Blood and Iron.

3. Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)

• Jalaluddin Khalji: Founded dynasty; policy of tolerance ("State cannot be truly Islamic if majority are Hindus").
• Alauddin Khilji:
  • Ordinances: Confiscated religious property, banned liquor, banned social gatherings, and strengthened the spy system.
  • Deccan Conquest: Malik Kafur (Naib) defeated Yadavas (Ramachandra - title Rai Rayan), Kakatiyas (Pratab Rudradeva), Hoysalas (Vira Ballala III), and Pandyas.
  • Market Reforms: Shahna-i-Mandi (Supt), Barid-i-Mandi (Inspectors), Munhiyans (Secret spies). Sera-i-Adl (Cloth/Groceries). Diwani Riyasat (Market Dept).
  • Historiographical Note (Thapar): These reforms were purely military-centric, designed to maintain a massive standing army without increasing land revenue beyond 50%. Critically, they were confined mostly to Delhi and the Doab region, not the entire empire.
  • Revenue: Hukm-i-Misahat (Measurement). Biswa unit. Ghari (House) and Chari (Pasture) taxes.
  • Military: Dagh (Branding) and Chehra (Roll). Paid in cash.
  • Architecture: Alai Darwaza, Siri Fort, Hauz Khas, Jamait Khana Mosque.

4. Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq: First to take title Ghazi. Started irrigation works.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq (MBT):
  • Experiments:
    • Doab Tax (1326): Increase in tax during famine/plague.
    • Capital Shift (1327): From Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad).
    • Strategic Logic (Thapar): Thapar argues this was not a whim but a strategic attempt to control the Deccan and the South which had become central to the empire's economy. The failure lay in the logistical execution, not the concept.
    • Token Currency (1329): Introduced Copper/Brass coins for Silver Tanka.
  • Agricultural Reforms: Established Diwan-i-Amir Kohi. Issued Takavy/Sondhar (loans).
  • Traveler: Ibn Battuta (Morocco) stayed for 8 years; wrote Rihla.
• Firoz Shah Tughlaq (FST):
  • Theocratic Tilt: First to impose Jizya on Brahmins.
  • Welfare Departments: Diwan-i-Khairat (Charity) and Diwan-i-Bandagan (Slaves - 1.8 Lakh).
  • Literature: Dalail-i-Firuz Shahi (Persian translation of Sanskrit manuscripts).
  • Public Works: Built massive canals (Sutlej to Hansi - 200km) and cities like Jaunpur (Shiraz of the East).
  • Architecture: Repaired Qutub Minar (replaced 4th storey with two smaller ones). Brought Ashokan Pillars (Topara and Meerut) to Delhi.

4. Sayyid (1414-1451) and Lodi (1451-1526) Dynasties

• Sayyids: Founded by Khizr Khan (former governor of Timur).
• Lodis (First Afghan Dynasty):
  • Bahlul Lodi: Founded the dynasty; treated his nobles as equals.
  • Sikandar Lodi: Greatest of the three. Founded Agra (1504). Introduced Gazz-i-Sikandari (measurement yard). He was a poet (alias Gulrukhi).
  • Ibrahim Lodi: Last Sultan. Defeated by Babur at the 1st Battle of Panipat (1526).

5. Major Administrative Organs

• Diwan-i-Wizarat: Finance (Wazir).
• Diwan-i-Arz: Military (Ariz-i-Mumalik).
• Diwan-i-Insha: Royal Correspondence (Dabir-i-Khas).
• Diwan-i-Risalat: Religious/Foreign affairs.
• Diwan-i-Kohi: Agriculture (under MBT).
• Diwan-i-Bandagan: Slaves (under FST).
• Diwan-i-Mustakharaj: Revenue Arrears (under Alauddin).

6. Top UPSC Traps (Caution)

1. Capital Shift: MBT did NOT abandon Delhi; he shifted the administrative center, but the move was so poorly managed it became a catastrophe.
2. Jizya: FST was the first to separate it from land revenue and impose it specifically on Brahmins, who were previously exempt.
3. Lodi Model: Lodis were NOT absolute monarchs; they followed an Afghan Tribal model where the Sultan was only 'First among equals'.
4. Sikandar Lodi: Despite being a great administrator, he was also an iconoclast who destroyed the Jwalamukhi temple and prohibited Muslim women from visiting shrines.
5. Bakhtiyar Khilji: He was a general of Muhammad Ghori (not Alauddin Khilji), responsible for ending the Buddhist dominance in Bihar/Bengal.

The Delhi Sultanate (c. 1206 – 1526 CE)

• Context: The establishment of Turkish and Afghan rule in North India, marked by significant institutional and architectural innovations.
• Primary Source: Poonam Dalal Dahiya (Chapters 15-18).

1. The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (c. 1206 – 1290)

• Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210):
  • Title: Lakh Baksh (Giver of Lakhs).
  • Architecture: Built Quwwat-ul-Islam (Delhi) and Arhai Din Ka Jhonpara (Ajmer). Started Qutub Minar.
  • Death: While playing Chaugan (Horse Polo) at Lahore.
• Iltutmish (1210-1236):
  • Real Founder: Shifted capital to Delhi. Received Mansur (investiture) from the Caliph (1229).
  • Groups: Organised the Turkan-i-Chahalgani (The Forty).
  • Iqta System: Divided empire into Iqtas (land assignments in lieu of salary).
  • Coinage: Issued pure Arabic coinage - Silver Tanka (175 grains) and Copper Jittal.
  • Mongols: Strategically refused asylum to Jalaluddin Mangbarani to avoid Chengiz Khan's wrath.
• Razia Sultan (1236-1239): First female Muslim ruler; discarded purdah; appointed Malik Jamaluddin Yaqut (Abyssinian) as Amir-i-Akhur.
• Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-1286):
  • Theory of Kingship: Zill-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God on Earth) and Niyabat-i-Khudai (Recipient of Divine Grace).
  • Court Etiquette: Introduced Sijda (prostration) and Paibos (kissing the Sultan's feet).
  • Departments: Separated Diwan-i-Wizarat (Finance) from Diwan-i-Arz (Military).
  • Blood and Iron Policy: Ruthlessly suppressed the Mewatis and the Chahalgani.

2. The Khalji Dynasty (c. 1290 – 1320)

• Ala-ud-din Khalji (1296-1316):
  • Market Reforms: Fixed prices of all commodities; set up separate markets (Mandi for grain, Sarai Adl for cloth/groceries).
  • Officers: Shahna-i-Mandi (Superintendent); Barids (Intelligence); Munhiyans (Secret spies).
  • Military: First to maintain a large Standing Army paid in cash. Introduced Dagh (branding horses) and Chehra (descriptive roll of soldiers).
  • Revenue: First to measure land (Biswa as unit); 50% state demand. Abolished Kismat-i-Khuti (headman's cess).
  • Southern Conquests: Led by Malik Kafur (Hazar Dinari). Defeated Yadavas (Devagiri), Kakatiyas (Warangal), Hoysalas (Dwarasamudra), and Pandyas (Madurai).

3. The Tughlaq Dynasty (c. 1320 – 1414)

• Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq: First to start large-scale Irrigation works (canals).
• Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-1351):
  • The Idealist: Experimented with Token Currency (Copper tokens at par with Silver Tanka) and Capital Transfer (Delhi to Daulatabad).
  • Agriculture: Created Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi; provided Takkavi loans (for seeds/cultivation).
  • Traveller: Ibn Battuta visited (1334) and stayed as Qazi for 8 years (Rihla).
• Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388):
  • Welfare: Established Diwan-i-Khairat (Charity), Diwan-i-Bandagan (Slaves), and Dar-ul-Shafa (Free hospitals).
  • Infrastructure: Built 300 towns (Jaunpur - Shiraz of the East, Firozabad). Repaired Qutub Minar.
  • Manuscripts: Translated 1300 Sanskrit works from Jawalamukhi temple into Persian (Dalail-i-Firuz Shahi).

4. Administrative Structure

• Wazir: Headed Diwan-i-Wizarat (Finance).
• Ariz-i-Mumalik: Headed Diwan-i-Arz (Military).
• Sadr-us-Sudur / Chief Qazi: Headed Diwan-i-Rasalat (Religious/Judicial affairs).
• Dabir-i-Khas: Headed Diwan-i-Insha (Correspondence).
• Mugtis / Walis: Governors of provinces (Iqtas).
• Shigdar: Head of Shigg (District).
• Amil: Head of Pargana (Sub-district).

5. Critical Technical Facts (UPSC Specific)

1. Lakh Baksh: Title awarded to Aibak for his generosity.
2. Hazar Dinari: Nickname for Malik Kafur, purchased for 1000 dinars.
3. Shiraz of the East: Jaunpur city, established by Firoz Tughlaq in memory of Jauna Khan (MBT).
4. Gazz-i-Sikandari: 32-digit unit for measuring land, introduced by Sikandar Lodhi.
5. Gulrukhi: Nom-de-plume used by Sikandar Lodhi for his Persian verses.
6. Agra: Founded in 1504 CE by Sikandar Lodhi.
7. Battle of Panipat (1526): Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi, ending the Sultanate.