The Eighteenth Century (1707–1857)

Overview

The 18th century was characterized by the transition from centralized Mughal hegemony to a decentralized polycentric order. Following the death of Aurangzeb, the absence of strong successors and a deepening institutional crisis led to the emergence of regional successor states and a strategic vacuum exploited by foreign invaders like Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali.

→ The Later Mughals

• Bahadur Shah I (1707–1712): Original name Muazzam; title Shah Alam I or Shah-i-Bekhabar
• Jahandar Shah (1712–1713): Ascended with help of Zulfikar Khan; abolished Jaziya
• Farrukh Siyar (1713–1719): Ascended with help of Sayyid brothers (King Makers)
• Muhammad Shah (1719–1748): Nadir Shah raided (1738-39), looting Peacock Throne and Kohinoor
• Ahmed Shah (1748–1754): Ahmad Shah Abdali ceded Punjab and Multan
• Alamgir II (1754–1759): Delhi occupied by Ahmad Shah; plundered by Marathas
• Shah Alam II (1759–1806): Virtual exile from Delhi for 12 years due to factionalism
• Akbar II (1806–1837): Pensioner of East India Company
• Bahadur Shah II (1837–1857): Last emperor; made premier in 1857 revolt; died in Rangoon (1862)

→ Causes for Decline of the Mughal Empire

1. Policies: Aurangzeb's Rajput, Deccan, and religious policies
2. Successors: Weak and incompetent administrators/generals after Aurangzeb
3. Succession Wars: Frequent infighting for the throne
4. Factionalism: Conflict among Turani, Irani, and Afghan nobility
5. Jagirdari Crisis: Shortage of revenue-yielding land vs. expanding Mansabdars
6. Regional Powers: Growth of Marathas and independent states in Bengal, Hyderabad, Avadh, Mysore
7. Foreign Invasions: Nadir Shah (1739) and Ahmad Shah Abdali
8. British Conquest: Expanding power of the East India Company

→ Religious Policy Changes (Timeline)

• 1659: Ban on Kalama on coins, Nauroj festival, and Muhatasib appointment
• 1663: Ban on Sati custom
• 1668: Ban on Hindu Festivals
• 1669: Ban on Jharokha darshan and music in court
• 1670: Ban on Tuladan (weighing of emperor)
• 1679: Re-introduction of Jaziya

→ Successor States

• Hyderabad: Founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah (1724)
• Bengal: Emerged under Murshid Quli Khan
• Awadh: Founded by Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk

UPSC Relevance

Key Angles UPSC Targets:

• Jagirdari Crisis: Institutional cause of decline beyond individual incompetency
• Nadir Shah Invasion: Financial and psychological blow to Mughal prestige
• Sayyid Brothers: Their role as king-makers during Farrukh Siyar’s reign
• Regional Autonomy: Shift of power to Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad as "technically loyal" states
• Decline Chronology: Order of "Later Mughal" successions and major invasions