Ancient Indian Philosophy and Science (Phase 10)

1. The Six Schools of Philosophy (Shad-Darshanas)

These orthodox (Astika) schools accept the authority of the Vedas.

• School — Founder — Key Text — Technical Core
• Nyaya — Gautama — Nyaya Sutra — Focused on Logic and Epistemology (Tarkavidya). 4 sources of knowledge: 1. Perception (Pratyaksha), 2. Inference (Anumana), 3. Comparison (Upamana), 4. Testimony (Shabda).
• Vaisheshika — Kanada — Vaisheshika Sutra — Atomic Theory. Proposed that the universe is made of five elements: Earth, Water, Light, Air, and Ether. Smallest unit is the Paramanu. Known as 'Particular Characteristics'; atoms were distinct from the soul, creating separate universes of matter and soul.
• Sankhya — Kapila — Sankhya Sutra — Oldest school. Proposes a dualism between Purusha (Soul/Consciousness) and Prakriti (Matter/Nature). Goal: Liberation from the 3 types of suffering (Adhyatmika, Adhibhautika, Adhidaivika).
• Yoga — Patanjali — Yoga Sutra — Practical application of Sankhya. Ashtanga Yoga (8-fold path): 1. Yama (Restraints), 2. Niyama (Observances), 3. Asana (Postures), 4. Pranayama (Breath), 5. Pratyahara (Sense withdrawal), 6. Dharana (Concentration), 7. Dhyana (Meditation), 8. Samadhi (Union).
• Mimamsa (Purva) — Jaimini — Mimamsa Sutra — Focused on the Ritualistic part of Vedas. Emphasizes Dharma as being composed of Vedic injunctions. Veda is eternal and unauthored (Apauruseya).
• Vedanta (Uttara) — Badarayana — Brahma Sutra — Focused on the Philosophical part (Upanishads). Discusses the relationship between Brahman (Ultimate Reality) and Atman (Individual Soul).

2. Heterodox Buddhist Philosophy

• Madhyamika (Shunyavada):
  • Founded by Nagarjuna (Mula-madhyamaka-karika).
  • Theory of Emptiness: All things are empty (Shunya) of inherent nature because they are dependently originated (Pratityasamutpada).
• Yogachara (Vijnanavada):
  • Founded by Maitreyanatha; developed by Asanga and Vasubandhu.
  • Mind-Only: Proposes that only consciousness/mind is real, and the external world is a projection of the mind.
• Sautrantika & Vaibhashika: Schools of Hinayana tradition focusing on the direct vs indirect perception of reality.

3. Jaina Philosophy: The Logic of Pluralism

• Anekantavada: The theory of many-sidedness of reality. No single statement can capture the entire truth of a complex reality.
• Syadvada (Saptabhangi-naya): The theory of conditional predication. Truth is relative and situational.
  • The 7 Judgments: 1. Syat-asti (Maybe it is), 2. Syat-nasti (Maybe it is not), 3. Syat-asti-nasti (Maybe it is and is not), 4. Syat-avaktavyam (Maybe it is indescribable), etc.

4. Ancient Scientific Treatises

• Medicine (Ayurveda):
  • Charaka Samhita: Written by Charaka (Kanishka’s court); deals with internal medicine, etiology, and hygiene.
  • Susruta Samhita: Written by Susruta (Gupta era?); deals with Surgery (Rhinoplasty, cataract, cesarean). Mentions 121 types of surgical instruments.
• Mathematics & Astronomy:
  • Aryabhatiya: Aryabhatta; calculated Pi to 4 decimal places (3.1416). Explained that the Earth is round and revolves on its axis.
  • Brahmasphuta-siddhanta: Brahmagupta; first to provide rules for operations with zero. Anticipated the law of gravity.
  • Panchasiddhantika: Varahamihira; a summary of five astronomical systems (Paitamaha, Vashishtha, Surya, Paulisa, and Romaka).