Early Medieval India & The Tripartite Struggle (c. 750 – 1200 CE)

• Transition: Period between the fall of Harsha and the Turkish conquest.
• Nature: Transition from Empire to regional kingdoms.
• Feudalization: Thapar defines this as the rise of the Samanta system, where land grants led to local lords exercising sovereign rights (judicial, revenue) over their domains.
• Socio-Economic Result: Led to the fragmentation of political power and a shift from a money economy to agrarian self-sufficiency (Urban Decay thesis).
• Caste Immobility: Thapar notes that the feudal structure trapped the peasantry and artisans in local units, leading to increased caste rigidity and a loss of social mobility.

1. The Tripartite Struggle (c. 780 – 900 CE)

• Contest for Kannauj: Symbol of imperial sovereignty and gateway to Gangetic trade.

• Dynasties:

• Dynasties:

  • Palas (East): Gopala (Elected to end Matsyanyaya); Dharmapala (Vikramshila Uni); Devapala (Patronized Balaputradeva of Srivijaya).
  • Pratiharas (West): Nagabhatta I (Resisted Arabs); Mihira Bhoja (Adivaraha, best cavalry); Mahendrapala I (Patron of Rajashekhara).
  • Rashtrakutas (Deccan): Dantidurga (Founder); Krishna I (Kailasa Temple); Amoghavarsha ("Ashoka of the South", wrote Kavirajamarga); Govind III (Sanjan Inscription).

• Origin of Rajputs (Thapar's Thesis):

  • Thapar rejects a purely ethnic origin. She argues it was a social process of assimilation of diverse elements (Hunas, Gurjaras, and local tribal chiefs) who were given 'Kshatriya' status via the Agnikula (Fire-pit) myth at Mt. Abu.
  • This provided the social legitimacy needed for these new warrior groups to rule as legitimate Hindu kings.

2. Regional Kingdoms (1000-1200 CE)

• Eastern Gangas (Odisha):
  • Founded by Anantavarman Chodaganga (built Jagannath Temple, Puri).
  • Narsimhadeva I: Constructed the Sun Temple, Konark (UNESCO).
• Western Chalukyas (Kalyani):
  • Vikramaditya VI: Greatest king. Bilhana (Vikramankadeva Charitra) and Vijnaneshwara (Mitakshara - law book) were in his court.
• Senas (Bengal): Ballal Sena (Danasagara); Lakshmana Sena (Jayadeva wrote Gita Govinda). Overthrown by Bakhtiyar Khilji.

3. Science and Technology

• Mathematics: Bhaskara II (12th c.) wrote Siddhanta Shiromani (parts: Lilavati, Bijaganita, Grahaganita, Goladhyaya).
  • Predated Newton in early calculus concepts; defined sidereal year as 365.2588 days.
• Astronomy: Mahaviracharya wrote Ganitasarasangraha (9th c.).
• Medicine: Discovery of mercury in medicines; decline in surgery due to caste rigidities (dissection taboo).

4. Philosophy: The Six Orthodox Schools (Shatdarshan)

1. Samkhya (Kapila): Dualism (Purusha/Prakriti). Self-knowledge leads to liberation.
2. Yoga (Patanjali): Practical path of physical/mental discipline.
3. Nyaya (Gautama): System of logic and analysis (Anvikshiki).
4. Vaisheshika (Kanada): Atomic theory; physics of the universe.
5. Mimansa (Jaimini): Art of reasoning and interpreting Vedas; emphasis on Yagya.
6. Vedanta (Badarayana): End of Vedas.
   • Advaita (Shankara): Absolute monism.
   • Vishistadvaita (Ramanuja): Qualified monism.
   • Dvaita (Madhva): Dualism.

5. Economy and Trade

• Arab Trade: While Roman trade fell, Thapar notes the rise of Arab maritime trade on the West Coast. Products like spices and textiles were exchanged for Arabian Horses (essential for the cavalry-based Pratiharas).
• Araghatta: The Persian wheel, which facilitated irrigation and agrarian expansion.

6. High-Yield UPSC Traps (Caution)

1. Shankaracharya: He led an intellectual Advaita movement against Buddhism, NOT a Bhakti movement.
2. Rajatarangini: Written by Kalhana (12th c.), provides a historical chronicle of Kashmir.
3. Bakhtiyar Khilji: Sacked Nalanda and Vikramshila (c. 1200 CE) during his march to Bengal.
4. Al-Biruni: Wrote Tariq-ul-Hind; noted the "insular and arrogant" scientific attitude of the 11th-century Indian elite.

Early Medieval India and the Tripartite Struggle (c. 750 – 1200 CE)

• Context: Fragmentation of the North Indian empire into regional Rajput powers, and a three-way contest for the center of power, Kannauj.
• Primary Source: Poonam Dalal Dahiya (Chapter 13) and Romila Thapar.

1. The Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj

Kannauj was the strategic prize because it controlled the fertile central Gangetic plain and trade routes.

A. The Palas of Bengal (East)

• Gopala: Founded the dynasty to end Matsyanyaya (anarchy). Built Odantapuri monastery.
• Dharmapala (c. 770-810): Founded Vikramshila University and Somapuri monastery. Presided over the Kannauj assembly.
• Devapala: Granted 5 villages to Nalanda at the request of Balaputradeva (ruler of Srivijaya/Sumatra).
• Religion: Ardent patrons of Vajrayana Buddhism.

B. The Gurjara-Pratiharas (West)

• Nagabhatta I: Successfully resisted Arab invasions starting from the 8th century.
• Mihir Bhoja (c. 836-885): Greatest ruler. Title: Adivaraha.
  • Foreign Evidence: Arab accounts call him Juzr (Sulaiman) and Baura (Al-Masudi). Known for the best cavalry in India.
• Mahendrapala I: Court poet Rajashekhara wrote Karpuramanjari, Kavya Mimansa, and Viddhashalabhanjika.

C. The Rashtrakutas (Deccan)

• Dantidurga: Founder; established capital at Manyakheta.
• Krishna I: Built the monolithic Kailasa Temple at Ellora.
• Amoghavarsha I: Titled "Ashoka of the South". Authored Kavirajamarga (first Kannada work on poetics).
• Indra III: Sacked Kannauj in 915 CE.

2. The Rajput Clans (Origin and Dynasties)

The basis of Rajput society was the Lineage-based Clan.

• Agnikula Myth: Mythical origin from the sacrificial fire of Sage Vashishta on Mount Abu. The 4 Agnikula clans: Pratiharas, Chauhans, Chandellas, Paramaras.

Major Rajput Dynasties

• Chauhans (Chahamanas) of Ajmer:
  • Prithviraj III (1177-1192): Popularly known as Prithviraj Chauhan.
  • Battles of Tarain: Defeated Muhammad Ghori in 1191 (1st Tarain) but was defeated in 1192 (2nd Tarain).
  • Literature: Prithviraj Raso (Chandbardai) and Prithviraj Vijaya (Jayanaka).
• Chandellas of Bundelkhand (Jejakabhukti):
  • Known for Khajuraho Temples (Nagara style): Lakshmana, Vishvanatha, and Kandariya Mahadeva (built by Vidyadhara).
• Paramaras of Malwa (Dhara):
  • Bhoja (1010-1055): Renowned scholar-king. Established Bhoj Shala (Sanskrit center) and the Saraswati temple in Dhar.
• Solankis (Chalukyas of Gujarat):
  • Bhima I: Built the Modhera Sun Temple. His wife Udaymati built Rani-ki-Vav.
  • Vimal Vasahi Temple: Dilwara temple dedicated to Rishabha, built by minister Vimalsha.
• Tomaras of Delhi:
  • Anangapala Tomar: Founded the city of Dhillika (Delhi) in the 11th century.

3. Socio-Economic and Scientific Reach

• Feudalization: Rise of the Samanta system. Land grants led to local lords exercising judicial and revenue rights, leading to political fragmentation.
• Trade: Growth of Arab maritime trade on the West coast. Export of Spices/Textiles; import of Arabian Horses.
• Mathematics: Bhaskara II (12th c.) wrote Siddhanta Shiromani (parts: Lilavati, Bijaganita).
• Technology: Use of Araghatta (Persian wheel) for deep-well irrigation.

4. Critical Technical Facts (UPSC Specific)

1. Sakalauttarapathapatha: Title used for Harsha, later contested by early medieval kings.
2. Jejakabhukti: Named after Jayashakti (Jeja), a Chandella ruler.
3. Jayachandra (Gahadavala): Defeated by Muhammad Ghori in the Battle of Chandawar (1194).
4. Bakhshali Manuscript: Dated to 3rd/4th century, containing early use of zero (cross-referenced for mathematical origins).
5. Bakhtiyar Khilji: Destroyed Buddhist universities of Nalanda and Vikramshila (c. 1200 CE).