Sultanate Economy & Agriculture (13th-14th Century)

• Context: The shift from a tribute-extracting state to a direct-revenue collecting empire.
• Key Feature: The integration of the Indian village economy into the wider Islamic commercial network.

1. Land Revenue Systems

• Iqta: Assignments of revenue to officials in lieu of cash salaries; initially non-hereditary.
• Khalisa: Land directly under the Sultan, used to pay the central standing army (Hashm-i-Qalb).
• Masahat (Measurement): Introduced by Alauddin Khalji to accurately assess land productivity and eliminate the middleman's margin.
• Ghallabakshi (Crop-sharing): Reintroduced by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq as a more humane alternative to rigid measurement.

2. Technological Innovations

• Persian Wheel (Saqiya): Introduced in the 13th-14th century (animal-powered gear system); revolutionized irrigation by accessing deep water tables.
• Canal Networking: Firuz Shah Tughlaq built the most extensive canal system (e.g., Yamuna to Hissar), enabling two harvests per year in dry regions.
• Spinning Wheel (Charkha): Introduced in the 14th century; increased textile production six-fold.

3. Trade and Urbanization

• New Cities: Foundation of Hissar, Jaunpur, and Firozabad.
• Monetary System: The Tanka (Silver) and Jital (Copper) standardized trade across the subcontinent.
• Overseas Trade: Handled primarily by Banyan and Marwari merchants on the West Coast, and Chettiars in the South.

4. Top UPSC Traps (Caution)

1. Tobacco & Potato: These were NOT present during the Sultanate; they were introduced by the Portuguese in the 17th century.
2. Sondhar Loans: These were not 'grants' but state-provided agricultural loans to farmers by Muhammad bin Tughlaq to promote recovery after the Doab famine.
3. Hereditary Iqta: It was only under Firuz Tughlaq that the Iqta became a hereditary property, which eventually weakened the central authority.