The Mughal Empire (1526–1857)

Overview

The Mughal Empire was established by Babur in 1526, marking a transition from fragmented regional states to a centralized pan-Indian hegemony. It reached its political and cultural zenith under the "Great Mughals" (Akbar to Aurangzeb), integrating Indo-Persian traditions and pioneering administrative systems like the Mansabdari. The empire significantly shaped India's legal, revenue, and architectural landscape before declining in the 18th century due to institutional crises and external invasions.

→ Babur (1526–1530)

• Lineage: Descendant of Timur (father's side) and Chengiz Khan (mother's side)
• Key Battles:
  • First Battle of Panipat (April 21, 1526): Defeated Ibrahim Lodhi
  • Battle of Khanwa (1527): Defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar
  • Battle of Chanderi (1528): Defeated Medini Rai of Chaneri
  • Battle of Ghaghra (1529): Defeated Muhammad Lodhi (uncle of Ibrahim Lodhi)
• Military Tactics:
  • Adopted Tughluma and flanking party system
  • First to use gunpowder and artillery in India
  • Gunners: Ustad Ali and Mustafa (Ottoman specialists)
• Death: 1530 at Agra; tomb located in Kabul
• Literature:
  • Autobiography: Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Turki); Translated to Persian (Baburnama) by Abdur Rahim Khanekhana; English by Madam Beveridge
  • Anthologies: Diwan (Turki), Mubaiyan (Persian)
  • Letters: Risal-i-Usaz
• Culture: Introduced Char-Baghs (symmetrical gardens); built mosques at Panipat and Sambhal

→ Humayun (1530–1540, 1555–1556)

• Succession: Challenged by brothers Kamran, Hindal, and Askari, along with Afghan chiefs
• Defeats: Lost battles of Chausa (1539) and Kannauj/Bilgram (1540) to Sher Shah
• Exile: Spent 12 years in Iran
• Restoration: Invaded India (1555); defeated Afghans to reclaim throne
• Death: Fell down library stairs at Din Panah (1556); buried in Delhi
• Key Works:
  • Biography: Humayunama (by sister Gulbadan Begum)
  • Capital: Built Din Panah at Delhi
  • Art: Invited Persian painters Mir Syed Ali and Abdus Samad

→ The Sur Empire / Second Afghan Empire (1540–1555)

• Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545):
  • Background: Son of Hasan Khan (Jagirdar of Sasaram); original name Farid
  • Rise: Joined Babur's service (1527-28); Deputy Governor of Bihar; gained Chunar by marriage
  • Titles: Hazarat-i-Ala, Sher Shah (after defeating Humayun)
  • Conquests: Malwa (1542), Ranthambhor (1542), Raisin (1543), Marwar (1542), Chittor (1544), Kalinjar (1545)
  • Death: 1545 during Kalinjar conquest; buried at Sasaram
• Administrative Units:
  • Iqta (Province)
  • Sarkar (District): Headed by Shiqdar-i-Shiaqdaran and Munsif-i-Munsifan
  • Pargana: Headed by Shiqdar (Order) and Munsif (Justice)
  • Gram (Village): Headed by Muqaddam and Amil
• Economic Reforms:
  • Issued the Silver Rupia coin; fixed standard weights/measures
  • Built Grand Trunk Road (Calcutta to Peshawar)
  • Set up Cantonments with strong garrisons
  • Introduced local responsibility for crimes (Muqaddams punished for village thefts)
• Revenue System:
  • Land measured; 1/3rd of average fixed as tax
  • Patta (title deed) and Qabuliyat (agreement deed) introduced
  • Removed Zamindars; direct collection from peasants
• Architecture: Built Purana Quila (Delhi)
• Successors: Islam Shah (1545-54), Muhammad Adil Shah (1554-55)

→ Jahangir (1605–1627)

• Accession: "Salim"; issued 12 ordinances
• Justice: Established Zanjir-i-Adal (Chain of Justice) at Agra Fort
• Nurjahan: Married Mihar-un-nisa (1611); titles Nurjahan/Nurmahal; exercised supreme influence; issued joint coins
• European Relations:
  • Captain William Hawkins (1608): Represented EIC; given mansab of 400
  • Sir Thomas Roe (1615): Ambassador of James I; secured permission for Surat factory
• Political Triumphs: Submission of Rana Amar Singh of Mewar (1615); captured Kangara (1620)
• Military Issues: Revolts by son Khusrau (supported by Guru Arjun Dev), Khurram (Shahjahan), and Mahavat Khan
• Religious Events: Sentenced 5th Sikh Guru Arjun Dev to death (1606)
• Literature: Wrote memoirs Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Persian); buried in Lahore

→ Shahjahan (1628–1658)

• Background: Mother Jagat Gosai/Jodha Bai
• Revolts: Bundelkhand (Jujhar Singh Bundela) and Deccan (Khan-i-Jahan Lodhi)
• Mumtaj Mahal: Arzumand Bano; died 1631; Taj Mahal built in her memory (1632-53)
• Conquests: Annexed Ahmadnagar (1633); suzerainty accepted by Bijapur and Golconda (1636); defeated Portuguese (1631-32)
• Foreign Policy: Failed campaigns to reclaim Kandhar from Iranians; army sent to Balkh (1647)
• Travelers: Bernier, Tavernier, Nicoli Manucci; Peter Mundi (recorded famine)
• Imprisonment: Jailed by Aurangzeb in Agra Fort; died 1666; buried at Taj Mahal

→→ War of Succession (1657–1659)

• Triggered by Shahjahan's falling health

• Battle — Date — Participants — Winner

• Bahadurpur — Feb 1658 — Dara vs Shah Shuja — Dara

• Dharmat — April 1658 — Dara vs Aurangzeb-Murad — Aurangzeb

• Samugarh — May 1658 — Dara vs Aurangzeb-Murad — Aurangzeb (Decisive)

• Khajua — Dec 1658 — Aurangzeb vs Shah Shuja — Aurangzeb

• Deorai — Mar 1659 — Aurangzeb vs Dara — Aurangzeb

→ Aurangzeb Alamgir (1658–1707)

• Accession: Crowned at Delhi with title Alamgir; ruled for 50 years
• Religious & Native Policy:
  • "Zinda Pir" (Living Saint); re-introduced Jaziya
  • Executed 9th Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur (1675) for non-conversion
  • Guru Gobind Singh (10th Guru) organized Khalsa warrior community
• Deccan Campaigns: 25 years (1682-1707) spent fighting Marathas, Bijapur, and Golconda
• Annexations: Bijapur (1686), Golconda (1687)
• Maratha Conflict: Captured and executed Sambhaji (1689); faced struggle from Rajaram and Tarabai
• Death: 1707; buried at Khuldabad (Daulatabad)

→→ Internal Revolts during Aurangzeb's Reign

• North India (1658-81):
  • Jat (1669): Led by Gokula, Rajaram, and Churamani (Cause: Agrarian policy)
  • Bundela (1671): Led by Champat Rai and Chhatrasal (Cause: Political/Religious)
  • Satnami (1673): Led by followers of Satnami Sect (Cause: Religious suppression)
  • Sikh (1675): Led by Guru Teg Bahadur and Guru Gobind Singh (Cause: Religious)
  • Rajput: Rathor (1678): Led by Durgadas (Cause: Succession to Marwar throne)
• South India (1682-1707):
  • Bijapur: Defeated Sikandar Adil Shah; Golconda: Defeated Abul Hasan Kutub Shah
  • Maratha: Struggle against Sambhaji, Rajaram, and Tarabai

→ Mughal Administration & Revenue

• Administrative Units:
  • Suba (Province): Headed by Subedar/Nizam (Executive) and Diwan (Revenue)
  • Sarkar (District): Headed by Fauzdar (Admin) and Amalguzar (Revenue)
  • Pargana (Taluka): Headed by Shiqdar (Admin) and Amin/Qanungo (Revenue)
  • Gram (Village): Headed by Muqaddam (Headman) and Patwari (Accountant)
• Land Revenue Categories:
  • Khalisa: Royal land
  • Jagirs: Assignment of salary to Mansabdars (Naqdi = Cash, Jagirdar = Land)
  • Inams: Gifted lands (waste lands); Madad-i-maasi: Religious/charity assignments
• Mansabdari System:
  • Introduced by Akbar; civil and military rank
  • Dual rank: Zat (personal status/pay) and Sawar (number of horsemen)
  • Duashah Sih-ashah (Jahangir): Raise sawar rank without changing zat
  • Month Scale/Mahana Zagir (Shahjahan): Monthly pay scale
• Revenue Estimation:
  • Rai: Yield per unit area
  • Zabti: Based on crop yields
  • Dahsala Bandobast: 10-year assessment project pioneered by Todar Mal

UPSC Relevance

Key Angles UPSC Targets:

• Sher Shah's Revenue Model: Influence on later Mughal (Akbar) and British systems
• Administrative Hierarchy: Distinction between Shiqdar, Fauzdar, and Muqaddam
• Religious Confrontations: Execution of Sikh Gurus and rise of Khalsa/Maratha nationalism
• Revenue Categories: Comparison of Khalisa vs Jagir vs Madad-i-maasi
• War of Succession 1658: Sequence and decisive nature of the Battle of Samugarh