Early Medieval North India (c. 750–1200 CE)

1. The Tripartite Struggle (Kanauj)

A long-term conflict between three major powers for control over Kanauj, the symbol of imperial sovereignty.

Participants: 1. Palas (East), 2. Gurjara-Pratiharas (West/North), 3. Rashtrakutas (South/Deccan).
Technical Outcome: The Rashtrakutas often won individual battles but could not hold Kanauj; the Pratiharas eventually established control but all three weakened each other, leading to political fragmentation.

Founding: Gopala (c. 750 CE); elected by local chieftains to end Matsyanyaya (anarchy). Ardent Buddhist.
Dharmapala (c. 770–810 CE):
- Revived the glory of Pataliputra and founded Vikramshila University (premier center of Buddhist studies).
- Granted 200 villages to Nalanda University.
- Held a grand darbar at Kanauj (installed Chakrayudha as his protege).
Devapala: Extended control to Assam and Orissa.
Cultural Influence: Close ties with Tibet (Atisa/Dipankara) and South-East Asia (Sailendra Empire). Built the Somapura Mahavihara (Paharpur).
Religion: Last great patrons of Mahayana/Vajrayana Buddhism.

Origin: Agnikula Rajput descent; initially famous for checking the Arab advance (Nagabhata I).
Vatsaraja: Real founder of the empire’s greatness; involved in the first phase of the Tripartite struggle.
Mihira Bhoja (c. 836–885 CE):
- Greatest Pratihara ruler. Title: Adivaraha (worshipper of Vishnu).
- Capital: Kanauj.
- Account of Sulaiman (Arab merchant): Praised the king for his efficient administration and horse-cavalry.
Mahendrapala I: Patron of the poet Rajasekhara (author of Karpuramanjari and Kavyamimamsa).

Founding: Dantidurga; overthrew the Chalukyas of Badami. Performed the Hiranyagarbha (Golden Womb) ritual at Ujjain.
Krishna I (756–774 CE):
- Commissioned the rock-cut Kailasha Temple at Ellora (Caves XVI). A monolithic wonder carved out of a single hill from top to bottom.
Govinda III & Amoghavarsha I:
- Amoghavarsha: Known as the "Ashoka of the South". Devout Jaina and author of Kavirajamarga (earliest Kannada work on poetics).
Indra III & Krishna III: Maintained dominance over the Palas and Pratiharas.
Administration: Divided into Rashtras (Province under Rashtrapati), Vishayas (District under Vishayapati), and Bhuktis.

Early Background: Initial Arab attempts failed at Thane and Broach.
The Event: Muhammad ibn Qasim (Umayaad general) captured Sindh after defeating Dahir (Brahman King) at the Battle of Raor.
The Cause: Plunder of Arab ships by pirates at the port of Debal (near Karachi).
Technical Outcomes:
- Introduction of Jizya (tax on non-Muslims) in India for the first time.
- Translation of Indian scientific works (e.g., Brahmasphutasiddhanta) into Arabic by scholars like Al-Fazari.
- Recognition of "Hindi" numerals (misnamed as Arabic numerals in the West).

Various theories on origin:

Foreign Descent: Scythian/Hun origin (V.A. Smith).
Indigenous/Mixed Origin: Integration of local tribal chiefs into the Brahmanical order (C.V. Vaidya).
Agnikula Legend: Origin from a sacrificial fire-pit on Mount Abu (mentioned in Chand Bardai’s Prithviraj Raso).

Chandellas of Jejakabhukti:
- Capital: Khajuraho.
- Architecture: Kandariya Mahadeva Temple; finest example of Nagara style.
Paramaras of Malwa:
- Bhoja: Most famous king; scholar/polymath who wrote on architecture, grammar, and medicine (Samarangana-sutradhara).
Chahamanas (Chauhans):
- Prithviraj III: Greatest king. Conflicts with Muhammad Ghori (Battles of Tarain).

Strategy: Conducted 17 raids into India to loot its temple wealth and strengthen his Ghazni empire.
Key Event: Sack of Somnath Temple (1025 CE); huge wealth plundered and the Shiva idol broken.
Al-Biruni: Scholar who accompanied Mahmud. Wrote Tahqiq-i-Hind (Kitab-ul-Hind).
- Observations: Detailed account of Indian philosophy, astronomy, and social customs (notably the caste system and self-isolation of Indians).

Objectives: Political conquest and establishment of Turkic rule, not just plunder.
First Battle of Tarain (1191): Defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan.
Second Battle of Tarain (1192): Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj; landmark battle that opened the gates for Turkic rule in North India.
Battle of Chandawar (1194): Defeated Jayachandra (Gahadavala king).

Feudalism Debate: Romila Thapar and others (R.S. Sharma) identify the rise of Samantas (feudal lords) due to land grants as the defining feature of this period.
Urban Decay: Argument that the grant of land led to the ruralization of the economy and a temporary decay of urban trade centers (critiqued by other historians who emphasize steady maritime trade in South/West India).
Caste Proliferation: Proliferation of local Jatis through the assimilation of forest tribes and the rise of intermediaries.