The Maratha Empire (1674–1818)

Overview

The Maratha Empire emerged as a formidable challenge to Mughal authority in the 17th century under the leadership of Shivaji Raje Bhonsle. It pioneered innovative administrative and military systems, including the Ashtapradhan council and sophisticated guerrilla warfare tactics. Following the death of Shahu, the empire transitioned from a centralized monarchy to a powerful confederacy led by hereditary Peshwas, eventually clashing with British colonial interests in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

→ Shivaji Raje Bhonsle (1674–1680)

• Birth: February 19, 1630 (Source A) or 1627 (Source B) at Shivner (Poona)
• Lineage: Bhonsle clan; Father: Shahji Bhonsle; Mother: Jijabai
• Influences: Dadaji Kondev (teacher/guardian), Guru Ramdas, and Tukaram
• Titles: Chhatrapati, Haindava Dharmodharak (Protector of Hinduism), Maharaja
• Early Career: Inherited Jagir of Poona (1637); assumed full charge after death of Dadaji Kondadev (1647)

→→ Military Conquests & Mughal Conflicts

• Early Conquests:
  • Singh Garh/Kondana (1643)
  • Torna (1646): First fort captured (from Bijapur)
  • Javli (1654): Captured from Chanda Rao More; Master of Mavala region
  • Pratapgarh (1659): Killed Afzal Khan (Bijapur) with Bagh Naka (tiger claws)
  • Kolhapur: Defeated Rustemjaman
  • Pavankhind (1660): Against Siddi Johar; led to Adil Shah's recognition of independence
• Mughal Engagements:
  • Shaista Khan (1663): Daring night attack in Poona; injured Khan, killed his son
  • Sack of Surat (1664): First plundering of rich Mughal port
  • Treaty of Purandar (1665): Signed with Raja Jai Singh of Amber
    • Surrendered 23 of 35 forts to Mughals
    • Sambhaji granted 5000-mansab rank
  • Agra Escape (1666): Fled house arrest disguised as palanquin bearer
• Coronation: June 1674 at Raigarh
• Southern Campaign (1676–1680): Captured Vellore and Ginjee (Carnatic region)

→→ Civil Administration (Ashtapradhan)

• Ashtapradhan (Council of Eight): Each responsible directly to Chhatrapati; no collective responsibility

• Office — Alternate Name — Function

• Peshwa — Mukhya Pradhan / Pant Pradhan — General administration & finance; later Prime Minister

• Amatya — Majumdar — Accountant General; checked all public accounts

• Mantri — Waqia-Navis / Waqenavis — Records/Intelligence; household affairs

• Sachiv — Shuru-Navis / Surnavis — Royal correspondence; authenticated official documents

• Sumant — Dabir — Foreign Minister; ceremonies and ambassadors

• Senapati — Sar-i-Naubat — Military Commander (honorary); recruitment & discipline

• Pandit Rao — Sadar — Religious head; charities and ecclesiastical matters

• Nyayadhish — - — Chief Justice; civil and criminal justice

• Provincial Structure:

  • Swaraj: Shivaji's immediate territory divided into 3 provinces under viceroys
  • Hierarchy: Prants (Provinces) → Tarfs/Parganas (Districts) → Mauzas (Villages)
  • Key Officials: Subedar (Prant), Havaldar (Tarf), Patil (Village Headman), Kulkarni (Village Accountant)

→→ Revenue & Military Systems

• Revenue Reforms: Based on Malik Ambar's (Ahmadnagar) system
• Measurement: Used Kathi (Source A) or Lathi (Source B) measuring rod
• Land Classification: Paddy, Garden, and Hilly
• Tax Rates: Initially 1/3rd (33%); later 2/5th (40%) after reforms
• Special Taxes:
  • Chauth: 1/4th (25%) revenue paid by non-Marathas to avoid raids
  • Sardeshmukhi: Additional 10% levy based on hereditary rights (Marathas as heads of Maharashtra)
• Records: Used the Modi Script
• Bureaucracy: Kamvishdars (performance-based Brahmin elites)
• Military Organization:
  • Cavalry (Paga): Bargirs (state-equipped) and Silahdars (noble-maintained)
  • Naik: Lowest head of cavalry
  • Forts: Chain of ~240 hill forts; each under Sabnis, Kardadar, and Sar-i-naubat (mutual check)
  • Tactics: Expertise in Guerilla Warfare and Mountain Warfare

→ Successors & The Great Split (1681–1749)

• Sambhaji (1681–1689):
  • Succeeded after war of succession with Rajaram
  • Nicknamed 'Kalusha' (Instigator)
  • Protected Akbar II (rebellious son of Aurangzeb)
  • Executed by Mughals at Sangameshwar with advisor Kavi Kalash
• Rajaram (1689–1700):
  • Escaped to Ginjee (capital for 9 years) after fall of Raigarh
  • Created new post Pratinidhi (taking ministers to nine)
  • Died at Satara (new capital after Ginjee fall)
• Tarabai (1700–1707):
  • Ruled as regent for minor son Shivaji II
  • Continued struggle against Mughals
• Shahu (1707–1749):
  • Released by Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah
  • Battle of Khed (1707): Defeated Tarabai with help of Balaji Vishwanath
  • The Split: Created two seats — Satara (Shahu) and Kolhapur (Tarabai/Sambhaji II)
  • Treaty of Warna (1731): Formalized division between Satara and Kolhapur branches

UPSC Relevance

Key Angles UPSC Targets:

• Ashtapradhan Council: Comparison of specific roles (Amatya vs Sumant)
• Revenue Systems: Definitions and distinction between Chauth and Sardeshmukhi
• Treaty of Purandar: Specific terms regarding forts and mansab ranks
• Shivaji's Administration: Influence of Malik Ambar's reforms on Maratha state
• Evolution of Power: Transition from Chhatrapati-led state to Peshwa-led Confederacy

The Maratha Confederacy (1720–1818)

Overview

The Maratha Confederacy represented a decentralized phase of the empire where power shifted from the Chhatrapati to the Peshwas. Under dynamic leaders like Baji Rao I, the Marathas expanded across North India, becoming the de facto masters of the Mughal court. However, the defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat and internal fragmentation among the major sardar families (Scindias, Holkars, Gaekwads) eventually weakened the state, leading to its absorption by the British East India Company after three intensive wars.

→ The Era of the Peshwas

• Balaji Vishwanath (1713–1720):
  • Sena Karte (marker of the army) title granted by Shahu (1708)
  • Made Peshwaship hereditary and supreme
  • Agreement with Syed Brothers (1719): Farrukh Siyar recognized Shahu as Swarajya king
  • Secured Chauth/Sardeshmukhi of 6 Deccan provinces
• Baji Rao I (1720–1740):
  • Called "Thorale" (Elder); eldest son of Balaji Vishwanath
  • Greatest exponent of Guerrilla Tactics after Shivaji
  • Northward Policy: Aimed to fly flag from "Krishna to Attock"
  • Quote: "Let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree and the branches will fall of themselves" (re: Mughals)
  • Victories: Defeated Nizam at Palkhed and Bhopal
  • Expeditions: Captured Bassein and Salsette from Portuguese (1739)
  • Treaty of Dor-ha Sarai: Obtained Malwa and Bundelkhand from Nizam
• Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Sahib I) (1740–1761):
  • Sangola Agreement (1750): Transferred full management of state affairs to Peshwa
  • Third Battle of Panipat (Jan 14, 1761):
    • Defeat by Ahmad Shah Abdali
    • Death of Viswas Rao and Sadashiv Rao Bhau
    • Check on Maratha expansion; fragmented the empire

→→ The Maratha Confederacy Families

• Confederacy System: Territorially entrenched families assigned by Baji Rao I

• Family — Headquarter/Territory — Notable Rulers

• Peshwas — Poona — Balaji Vishwanath, Baji Rao I

• Scindias (Shinde) — Gwalior — Mahadaji Scindia, Daulat Rao

• Holkars — Indore — Malhar Rao, Ahalya Bai (1765–1794)

• Gaekwads — Baroda — Damaji, Fateh Singh

• Bhonsles — Nagpur — Raghuji Bhonsle (occupied Orissa)

• Pawars — Dhar — -

• Post-1761 Leaders:

  • Madhav Rao (1761–1772): "Most Remarkable Peshwa"; restored fortunes; defeated Nizam and Haidar Ali
  • Mahadaji Scindia: Organized European-style army; Naib-i-Munaib of Mughal Emperor

→ Anglo-Maratha Wars & Decline

• First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782):
  • Cause: Support for Raghunath Rao (Raghoba) for Peshwaship
  • Convention of Wadgaon (1779): Humiliating British defeat
  • Treaty of Salbai (1782): Ended war; British renounced Raghoba's cause
• Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1806):
  • Treaty of Bassein (1802): Baji Rao II signed Subsidiary Alliance with British
  • Individual confederacy chiefs defeated by British
• Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818):
  • Lord Hastings moved against Pindaris and Maratha sovereignty
  • Decisive Maratha defeat; ended Maratha power
• Successors: Sawai Madhav Rao (1773–1795), Baji Rao II (1795–1818)

UPSC Relevance

Key Angles UPSC Targets:

• Sangola Agreement (1750): Significance in shifting power to Peshwas
• Third Battle of Panipat: Strategic implications and causes of Maratha defeat
• Maratha Confederacy: Mapping of families to their respective regions
• Anglo-Maratha Treaties: Specifics of Salbai (1782) and Bassein (1802)
• Peshwa Roles: Contribution of Baji Rao I to Maratha expansionism