The Fourteenth Century: Peak and Over-expansion (1290-1414)

Transition: From the racial exclusivity of Turks to a broader recruitment of Persians, Indians, and Africans.
Key Feature: Centralized economic control and experimental governance.

1. Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316): The Totalitarian

Market Reforms: Fixed prices for all essentials (grain, cloth, cattle).
- Driven by the need to maintain a massive standing army for Mongol defense at low cost.
- Shahna-i-Mandi: Market supervisors who enforced price limits.
Agrarian Policies:
- First Sultan to introduce Measurement (Biswa) as a basis for land revenue.
- Collected 50% of produce; bypassed intermediaries like the Khots and Muqaddams.
Military Expansion: Annexed North India and launched tributary raids into South India (led by Malik Kafur).

Diversity: Patronized talent regardless of race—included Hindus and migrants (like Ibn Battuta).
The "Failures" Analyzed:
- Capital Shift to Daulatabad (1327): Aimed for better control over the South, but failed due to the total relocation of the Delhi population.
- Token Currency (1329): Bronze coins for silver value; failed because the state lacked a monopoly over minting, leading to massive counterfeiting.
- Agrarian Distress: Heavily taxed the Doab during a famine, leading to a major peasant revolt.
Agricultural Dept: Diwan-i-Amir-i-Kohi – State-funded revolving credit for farmers.

Policy Shift: Reversed the centralization of Khaljis; made Iqtas hereditary and appeased the Ulema.
Public Works: Built 300+ towns (Jaunpur, Firozabad) and complex canal systems (Yamuna-Sutlej).
Social: Established the Diwan-i-Bandagan (Dept of Slaves) for his 180,000 personal slaves.

Alauddin's Markets: These were NOT welfare measures; they were strictly military-logistical interventions to avoid hyperinflation during wars.
MbT's Character: He was NOT insane; he was an intellectual far ahead of his time, whose policies lacked the administrative machinery (bureaucracy) to execute them.
Jizya: Firuz Tughlaq was the first to impose Jizya on Brahmins (who were previously exempt).
Southern Expansion: Khaljis practiced 'Tributary' imperialism in the South; Tughlaqs attempted 'Annexation', which led to the Deccan falling away (Vijayanagara/Bahmani).