15th & Early 16th Century (1414-1556)

Context: The period of 'Regional Sultanates' between the decline of the Tughlaqs and the rise of the Mughals.
Key Feature: The shift from centralized Turkish rule to a polycentric political landscape and the Afghan tribal model.

1. Major Provincial Powers

Kashmir: Zain-ul-Abidin (Bud Shah).
- Known for religious tolerance; abolished Jizya and allowed Hindus to return.
- Titled "Akbar of Kashmir" for his liberal policies and patronage of arts.
Gujarat: Mahmud Begarha.
- Conquered the powerful forts of Girnar (Junagadh) and Champaner.
- Known for his massive physical appetite and for building the city of Mustafabad.
Jaunpur: Sharqi Kings.
- Titled "Shiraz of the East" due to its growth as a major center of Islamic learning and culture.

Nature: The first Afghan dynasty in India; replaced the Turkish 'Monarch as Master' model with 'Monarch as First among Equals' (Primus Inter Pares).
Sikandar Lodi: The greatest of the line; founded Agra (1504) as a secondary capital to control the Doab.
Gaj-i-Sikandari: A standardized land measurement unit (32 digits) that remained in use until the Mughal era.

Administrative Legacy: Sher Shah was not just a conqueror; his administrative reforms provided the blueprint for Akbar's later success.
Currency: Introduced the Silver Rupia (178 grains), which became the precursor to the modern Rupee.
Infrastructure: Rebuilt the Grand Trunk Road (Sadak-i-Azam) from Sonargaon (Bengal) to the Indus river.
Land Revenue: Introduced the Rai (Schedule of crop rates) based on land productivity.

1st Panipat (1526): Babur's victory was not just due to numbers but the superior use of Tulughma (flanking) tactics and field artillery (Top-khana).
Sikandar Lodi's Fanaticism: Unlike Zain-ul-Abidin, Sikandar Lodi was known for religious intolerance, including the destruction of temples and reimposition of Jizya.
Sher Shah's Death: He died in a gunpowder explosion during the siege of Kalinjar, not in open battle against Humayun.